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He graduated from Sonoma State University in 1985 with a bachelor’s degree in physics (and minor in astronomy), after which he signed on for a two-year stint in the Peace Corps, where he taught physics and mathematics in the African nation of Cameroon. From 1989-96 he served on the crew of NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory at Ames Research Center in Mountain View, CA. From 1996-99, he was Head Observer at the Naval Prototype Optical Interferometer program at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, AZ.\r\n\r\nRead his \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/ben-burress/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/8263bffa345b7e4923a0b8b9f0f6a161?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"science","roles":["editor"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Ben Burress | 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FM","link":"/"}},"quest_40851":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_40851","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"40851","score":null,"sort":[1342191640000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"deep-dark-waters-of-titan","title":"Deep, Dark Waters of Titan","publishDate":1342191640,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40852\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/13/deep-dark-waters-of-titan/titansocean/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-40852\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-40852\" title=\"Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean.jpg\" alt=\"Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds \u003cem>another \u003c/em>ocean for us to worry about, this time on Saturn's moon, Titan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Funny thing about oceans in the solar system, other than Earth's deep waters, they seem to be popping up where we least expect them: in the outer solar system. Should we change our preconceptions and start expecting them there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rewind to my childhood, when my fascination with space, and in particular the planets and moons of the solar system, was only tantalized by the distant, fuzzy images collected by Earth-based telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking through my small telescope, Jupiter's four Galilean moons were sparks of light, or at best, fuzzy disks showing blotches of light and dark and perhaps a little color taken \"close up\" by the Pioneer spacecraft. This left a lot to the imagination--which was actually part of the fascination. Who might have suspected, looking at the \u003ca title=\"Europa imaged by Pioneer 10\" href=\"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg/200px-Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">blurry whitish fuzz-patch of Europa\u003c/a>, as seen by Pioneer, that there was an ocean hidden under the icy crust tens of miles deep and containing more liquid water than all of Earth's?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Galileo spacecraft eventually obtained images that alluded to the existence of \u003ca title=\"Europa's Ocean\" href=\"http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/12/europas-ocean-a-future-nasa-2020-mission-in-search-for-life.html\" target=\"_blank\">Europa's oceans\u003c/a>, scientists explained how heat generated through tidal flexing by Jupiter was the mechanism that kept the waters fluid. Voyager had already revealed that the \u003ca title=\"Io's volcanic activity\" href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/iovolcano.htm\" target=\"_blank\">moon Io\u003c/a> experienced heating that powered its many active volcanoes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And now there is evidence for another big ocean out there, on Saturn's moon Titan. Titan? Did you hear me right? That outer solar system moon whose atmosphere is so cold that ice is as strong as steel and methane—the stuff that spews out of your gas stove—is in a liquid state? That Titan?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From what the \u003ca title=\"Titan's Ocean\" href=\"http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/newsreleases/newsrelease20120628/\" target=\"_blank\">Cassini spacecraft has reported to us\u003c/a>, the answer is very likely yes, buried deep under Titan's surface. You may ask, how has Cassini detected this hidden ocean's presence? Europa's ocean was inferred by the patterns of cracking in its icy crust, similar to cracks seen on Earth in floating sheets of sea ice. But Titan sports no cracks that we can see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You probably know something about the tides in Earth's oceans caused by the gravitational pull of the moon. (Oh, does it seem like I just completely changed the subject? Read on, I'm getting there.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The effect of the moon \"stretching\" the ocean's waters raises two liquid bulges and as Earth's surface rotates into and out of these bulges, we experience the rising and falling of the tides.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moon actually raises Earth's waters by as much as two feet and in fact Earth's crust itself rises by nearly 20 inches! Earth is stretched oh-so-slightly into the shape of a football.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Cassini spacecraft has measured similar tidal deformation in Titan's shape caused by the pull of Saturn's gravity. The extremely sensitive measurements were made during several close fly-bys of Titan over a five-year period. Based on the strength of Saturn's gravity, were Titan a more-or-less solid object, its tidal bulges shouldn't be a departure of more than about three feet. However, Cassini's measurements show a stretching on the order of 30 feet!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The inference is that there is a liquid layer beneath Titan's crust--and since the composition of outer solar system objects is heavy on water ice, probably liquid water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Exactly how far below the surface and how deep this ocean is we don't know yet, and while the crust above it is likely quite icy, what surface is to be found at the ocean's floor—icy or rocky--also is unknown. We're a bit fuzzy on those details right now, but it leaves a lot to the imagination.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds another ocean for us to worry about -- this time on Saturn's moon, Titan. \r\n","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1370998565,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":662},"headData":{"title":"Deep, Dark Waters of Titan | KQED","description":"Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds another ocean for us to worry about -- this time on Saturn's moon, Titan. \r\n","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"40851 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=40851","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/13/deep-dark-waters-of-titan/","disqusTitle":"Deep, Dark Waters of Titan","path":"/quest/40851/deep-dark-waters-of-titan","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40852\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/13/deep-dark-waters-of-titan/titansocean/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-40852\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-40852\" title=\"Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean.jpg\" alt=\"Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds \u003cem>another \u003c/em>ocean for us to worry about, this time on Saturn's moon, Titan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Funny thing about oceans in the solar system, other than Earth's deep waters, they seem to be popping up where we least expect them: in the outer solar system. Should we change our preconceptions and start expecting them there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rewind to my childhood, when my fascination with space, and in particular the planets and moons of the solar system, was only tantalized by the distant, fuzzy images collected by Earth-based telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking through my small telescope, Jupiter's four Galilean moons were sparks of light, or at best, fuzzy disks showing blotches of light and dark and perhaps a little color taken \"close up\" by the Pioneer spacecraft. This left a lot to the imagination--which was actually part of the fascination. Who might have suspected, looking at the \u003ca title=\"Europa imaged by Pioneer 10\" href=\"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg/200px-Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">blurry whitish fuzz-patch of Europa\u003c/a>, as seen by Pioneer, that there was an ocean hidden under the icy crust tens of miles deep and containing more liquid water than all of Earth's?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Galileo spacecraft eventually obtained images that alluded to the existence of \u003ca title=\"Europa's Ocean\" href=\"http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/12/europas-ocean-a-future-nasa-2020-mission-in-search-for-life.html\" target=\"_blank\">Europa's oceans\u003c/a>, scientists explained how heat generated through tidal flexing by Jupiter was the mechanism that kept the waters fluid. Voyager had already revealed that the \u003ca title=\"Io's volcanic activity\" href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/iovolcano.htm\" target=\"_blank\">moon Io\u003c/a> experienced heating that powered its many active volcanoes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And now there is evidence for another big ocean out there, on Saturn's moon Titan. Titan? Did you hear me right? That outer solar system moon whose atmosphere is so cold that ice is as strong as steel and methane—the stuff that spews out of your gas stove—is in a liquid state? That Titan?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From what the \u003ca title=\"Titan's Ocean\" href=\"http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/newsreleases/newsrelease20120628/\" target=\"_blank\">Cassini spacecraft has reported to us\u003c/a>, the answer is very likely yes, buried deep under Titan's surface. You may ask, how has Cassini detected this hidden ocean's presence? Europa's ocean was inferred by the patterns of cracking in its icy crust, similar to cracks seen on Earth in floating sheets of sea ice. But Titan sports no cracks that we can see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You probably know something about the tides in Earth's oceans caused by the gravitational pull of the moon. (Oh, does it seem like I just completely changed the subject? Read on, I'm getting there.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The effect of the moon \"stretching\" the ocean's waters raises two liquid bulges and as Earth's surface rotates into and out of these bulges, we experience the rising and falling of the tides.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moon actually raises Earth's waters by as much as two feet and in fact Earth's crust itself rises by nearly 20 inches! Earth is stretched oh-so-slightly into the shape of a football.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Cassini spacecraft has measured similar tidal deformation in Titan's shape caused by the pull of Saturn's gravity. The extremely sensitive measurements were made during several close fly-bys of Titan over a five-year period. Based on the strength of Saturn's gravity, were Titan a more-or-less solid object, its tidal bulges shouldn't be a departure of more than about three feet. However, Cassini's measurements show a stretching on the order of 30 feet!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The inference is that there is a liquid layer beneath Titan's crust--and since the composition of outer solar system objects is heavy on water ice, probably liquid water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Exactly how far below the surface and how deep this ocean is we don't know yet, and while the crust above it is likely quite icy, what surface is to be found at the ocean's floor—icy or rocky--also is unknown. We're a bit fuzzy on those details right now, but it leaves a lot to the imagination.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/40851/deep-dark-waters-of-titan","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_505","quest_544","quest_1027","quest_1164","quest_1492","quest_1918","quest_2034","quest_13202","quest_2513","quest_2936","quest_2937","quest_2947","quest_11240"],"featImg":"quest_40852","label":"quest"},"quest_40161":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_40161","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"40161","score":null,"sort":[1340982010000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"voyager-old-spacecraft-new-frontier","title":"Voyager: Old Spacecraft, New Frontier?","publishDate":1340982010,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40163\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/06/29/voyager-old-spacecraft-new-frontier/voyagersandheliopause/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-40163\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/voyagersandheliopause.jpg\" alt=\"The Voyager spacecraft and the Heliopause\" title=\"The Voyager spacecraft and the Heliopause\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-40163\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/voyagersandheliopause.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/voyagersandheliopause-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Voyager spacecraft and the Heliopause\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In 1977, a mere 20 years after the launch of Sputnik marked the beginning of the Space Age, the twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft were launched, bound for tours of the gas giant planets of the outer Solar System. And though it's been over two decades since either Voyager made its final planetary fly-by, to this day both vehicles are in good health, still sending their pioneering data back to us via the worldwide \u003ca href=\"http://deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/\">Deep Space Network\u003c/a> of radio dishes and still making important scientific discoveries and history. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though launched 4-5 years after the first spacecraft to cross the Asteroid Belt, encounter gas giants and achieve escape velocity from our Solar System (Pioneers 10 and 11), the Voyagers have since outdistanced the Pioneers to become the most distant human-made craft in space. We also lost contact with the Pioneers, in 1995 and 2003—but the \u003ca href=\"http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/\" title=\"Voyager 1 and 2\" target=\"_blank\">Voyagers are still on line!\u003c/a> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At nearly three times the mass and power generation of the Pioneers, the Voyagers continue to blaze trails. As of right now, Voyager 2 is nearly 15 billion kilometers from the Sun and Voyager 1 leads the race at over 18 billion kilometers: quadruple the distance to Neptune! Every second carries Voyager 1, the speedier of the pair, 17 kilometers farther into space. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And though it will be at least 40,000 years before Voyager 1 gets anywhere near another star, recent data from the probe indicates that it may have reached a milestone in its journey anyway. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Voyagers were launched, even though their primary missions were to observe the gas giants of the outer Solar System, NASA hoped that the spacecraft would stay active and healthy long enough to make measurements until their inevitable passage through the edge of the Solar System: the boundary layer between the influences of our Sun and the environment of interstellar space beyond.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Sun not only radiates light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation, but also plasma (electrically charged gas, mostly hydrogen) and accompanying magnetic fields: \u003ca href=\"http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml\" title=\"The Solar Wind\" target=\"_blank\">the solar wind\u003c/a>. The material expands outward into space and eventually encounters the influences of the interstellar environment. The collision of the two realms forms a \"bubble\". The material inside the bubble--the heliosphere, essentially the Sun's extended atmosphere--encompasses a volume of space extending far beyond the planets. The tenuous boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar medium is called the heliopause. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's a bit like the difference in water current and wave action between the waters of a protected cove and the open ocean. I remember a trip to Angel Island with my friend Bob back in the 1970's. We rowed a small inflatable raft out into the harbor, sculling around the calm, nearly still waters within the projected arc of the cove. Then we rowed out beyond the confines of the cove, suddenly finding ourselves in an environment of high, choppy waves and a powerful current that threatened to carry us away from the island and out toward the Golden Gate Bridge. Ten minutes of furious rowing were required to get us back inside the peaceful bubble of the cove, and safety—and I'll never forget it! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the past two years, Voyager scientists have noticed an increase in the amount of electrically charged particles detected by Voyager 1 -- particles not of the solar wind, but high velocity interstellar ions probably formed in supernova explosions in our neighborhood in the past: \"galactic cosmic rays.\" The cosmic ray count rose 25% in the past three years and since May of this year, there has been an additional 9% increase. If this is an indication that Voyager 1 is encountering the heliopause, maybe it's analogous to Bob and I suddenly encountering larger and more waves in our inflatable raft at the boundary of the cove. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another indicator that Voyager 1 may be breaking on through to the other side will be a change in the direction of the magnetic fields around it, as the magnetic field put out by our Sun bends to the will of the Milky Way Galaxy at large. NASA is currently analyzing Voyager's data to determine if this shift is taking place. I guess it could be likened to the sudden change of current that almost swept Bob and I off to the Golden Gate Bridge. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What will become of these veteran robots that are destined to become humanity's first interstellar envoys, carrying with them their various audio recordings and images of our species? Will they drift off into obscurity, becoming lost in space? Will they become objects for target practice by some trigger happy extraterrestrial spacefarer? Will they one day arrive at an alien world with our messages, prompting a response? Only time--probably lots of it--will tell....\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Thirty-five years after beginning a remarkable journey that started with encounters of Jupiter and Saturn, Voyager 1 may once again be making a historic scientific encounter: the boundary between our Solar System and interstellar space!","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1370998609,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":12,"wordCount":812},"headData":{"title":"Voyager: Old Spacecraft, New Frontier? | KQED","description":"Thirty-five years after beginning a remarkable journey that started with encounters of Jupiter and Saturn, Voyager 1 may once again be making a historic scientific encounter: the boundary between our Solar System and interstellar space!","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"40161 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=40161","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/06/29/voyager-old-spacecraft-new-frontier/","disqusTitle":"Voyager: Old Spacecraft, New Frontier?","path":"/quest/40161/voyager-old-spacecraft-new-frontier","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40163\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/06/29/voyager-old-spacecraft-new-frontier/voyagersandheliopause/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-40163\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/voyagersandheliopause.jpg\" alt=\"The Voyager spacecraft and the Heliopause\" title=\"The Voyager spacecraft and the Heliopause\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-40163\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/voyagersandheliopause.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/voyagersandheliopause-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Voyager spacecraft and the Heliopause\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In 1977, a mere 20 years after the launch of Sputnik marked the beginning of the Space Age, the twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft were launched, bound for tours of the gas giant planets of the outer Solar System. And though it's been over two decades since either Voyager made its final planetary fly-by, to this day both vehicles are in good health, still sending their pioneering data back to us via the worldwide \u003ca href=\"http://deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/\">Deep Space Network\u003c/a> of radio dishes and still making important scientific discoveries and history. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though launched 4-5 years after the first spacecraft to cross the Asteroid Belt, encounter gas giants and achieve escape velocity from our Solar System (Pioneers 10 and 11), the Voyagers have since outdistanced the Pioneers to become the most distant human-made craft in space. We also lost contact with the Pioneers, in 1995 and 2003—but the \u003ca href=\"http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/\" title=\"Voyager 1 and 2\" target=\"_blank\">Voyagers are still on line!\u003c/a> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At nearly three times the mass and power generation of the Pioneers, the Voyagers continue to blaze trails. As of right now, Voyager 2 is nearly 15 billion kilometers from the Sun and Voyager 1 leads the race at over 18 billion kilometers: quadruple the distance to Neptune! Every second carries Voyager 1, the speedier of the pair, 17 kilometers farther into space. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And though it will be at least 40,000 years before Voyager 1 gets anywhere near another star, recent data from the probe indicates that it may have reached a milestone in its journey anyway. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Voyagers were launched, even though their primary missions were to observe the gas giants of the outer Solar System, NASA hoped that the spacecraft would stay active and healthy long enough to make measurements until their inevitable passage through the edge of the Solar System: the boundary layer between the influences of our Sun and the environment of interstellar space beyond.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Sun not only radiates light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation, but also plasma (electrically charged gas, mostly hydrogen) and accompanying magnetic fields: \u003ca href=\"http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml\" title=\"The Solar Wind\" target=\"_blank\">the solar wind\u003c/a>. The material expands outward into space and eventually encounters the influences of the interstellar environment. The collision of the two realms forms a \"bubble\". The material inside the bubble--the heliosphere, essentially the Sun's extended atmosphere--encompasses a volume of space extending far beyond the planets. The tenuous boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar medium is called the heliopause. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's a bit like the difference in water current and wave action between the waters of a protected cove and the open ocean. I remember a trip to Angel Island with my friend Bob back in the 1970's. We rowed a small inflatable raft out into the harbor, sculling around the calm, nearly still waters within the projected arc of the cove. Then we rowed out beyond the confines of the cove, suddenly finding ourselves in an environment of high, choppy waves and a powerful current that threatened to carry us away from the island and out toward the Golden Gate Bridge. Ten minutes of furious rowing were required to get us back inside the peaceful bubble of the cove, and safety—and I'll never forget it! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the past two years, Voyager scientists have noticed an increase in the amount of electrically charged particles detected by Voyager 1 -- particles not of the solar wind, but high velocity interstellar ions probably formed in supernova explosions in our neighborhood in the past: \"galactic cosmic rays.\" The cosmic ray count rose 25% in the past three years and since May of this year, there has been an additional 9% increase. If this is an indication that Voyager 1 is encountering the heliopause, maybe it's analogous to Bob and I suddenly encountering larger and more waves in our inflatable raft at the boundary of the cove. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another indicator that Voyager 1 may be breaking on through to the other side will be a change in the direction of the magnetic fields around it, as the magnetic field put out by our Sun bends to the will of the Milky Way Galaxy at large. NASA is currently analyzing Voyager's data to determine if this shift is taking place. I guess it could be likened to the sudden change of current that almost swept Bob and I off to the Golden Gate Bridge. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What will become of these veteran robots that are destined to become humanity's first interstellar envoys, carrying with them their various audio recordings and images of our species? Will they drift off into obscurity, becoming lost in space? Will they become objects for target practice by some trigger happy extraterrestrial spacefarer? Will they one day arrive at an alien world with our messages, prompting a response? Only time--probably lots of it--will tell....\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/40161/voyager-old-spacecraft-new-frontier","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_544","quest_836","quest_1040","quest_1918","quest_2216","quest_13202","quest_2739","quest_2742","quest_11240"],"featImg":"quest_40163","label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/possible-5gxfizEbKOJ-pbF5ASgxrs_.1400x1400.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. Michel Martin hosts on the weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 1pm-2pm, 4:30pm-6:30pm\u003cbr />SAT-SUN 5pm-6pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/ATC_1400.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.npr.org/programs/all-things-considered/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/all-things-considered"},"american-suburb-podcast":{"id":"american-suburb-podcast","title":"American Suburb: The Podcast","tagline":"The flip side of gentrification, told through one town","info":"Gentrification is changing cities across America, forcing people from neighborhoods they have long called home. Call them the displaced. Now those priced out of the Bay Area are looking for a better life in an unlikely place. American Suburb follows this migration to one California town along the Delta, 45 miles from San Francisco. But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/powerpress/1440_0018_AmericanSuburb_iTunesTile_01.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"13"},"link":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/American-Suburb-p1086805/","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"}},"baycurious":{"id":"baycurious","title":"Bay Curious","tagline":"Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time","info":"KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/powerpress/1440_0017_BayCurious_iTunesTile_01.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/2021/10/BBC_1400.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CodeSwitchLifeKit_StationGraphics_300x300EmailGraphic.png","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. 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