Saved From Living Death: How Genetically Modifying Chestnuts Could Bring Them Back
Scrounging for Research Dollars
Fund Basic Research, It’s For Your Own Good
DNA Ancestry Tests: Simultaneously Powerful and Limited
Resurrection Biology: The Reality of Bringing Back Extinct Species
Engineering a Virus-Free Future
Genetic Sleuthing, Or How To Catch The Right Identical Twin Criminal
Comments Do Matter (So Get Talking!)
Pregnancy and Paternity: New Fetal DNA Testing
Sponsored
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Together these two partners created the \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/permanent/index.php?sGalKey=gtwt&galKey=lt\">Genetics: Technology with a Twist\u003c/a> exhibition.\r\n\r\nYou can also see \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/author/dr-barry-starr/\">additional posts by Barry at KQED Science\u003c/a>, and read his \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/dr-barry-starr/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":"geneticsboy","facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"science","roles":["author"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Dr. Barry Starr | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/dr-barry-starr"}},"breakingNewsReducer":{},"campaignFinanceReducer":{},"firebase":{"requesting":{},"requested":{},"timestamps":{},"data":{},"ordered":{},"auth":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"authError":null,"profile":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"listeners":{"byId":{},"allIds":[]},"isInitializing":false,"errors":[]},"navBarReducer":{"navBarId":"home","fullView":true,"showPlayer":false},"navMenuReducer":{"menus":[{"key":"menu1","items":[{"name":"News","link":"/","type":"title"},{"name":"Politics","link":"/politics"},{"name":"Science","link":"/science"},{"name":"Education","link":"/educationnews"},{"name":"Housing","link":"/housing"},{"name":"Immigration","link":"/immigration"},{"name":"Criminal Justice","link":"/criminaljustice"},{"name":"Silicon Valley","link":"/siliconvalley"},{"name":"Forum","link":"/forum"},{"name":"The California Report","link":"/californiareport"}]},{"key":"menu2","items":[{"name":"Arts & Culture","link":"/arts","type":"title"},{"name":"Critics’ Picks","link":"/thedolist"},{"name":"Cultural Commentary","link":"/artscommentary"},{"name":"Food & Drink","link":"/food"},{"name":"Bay Area Hip-Hop","link":"/bayareahiphop"},{"name":"Rebel Girls","link":"/rebelgirls"},{"name":"Arts Video","link":"/artsvideos"}]},{"key":"menu3","items":[{"name":"Podcasts","link":"/podcasts","type":"title"},{"name":"Bay Curious","link":"/podcasts/baycurious"},{"name":"Rightnowish","link":"/podcasts/rightnowish"},{"name":"The Bay","link":"/podcasts/thebay"},{"name":"On Our Watch","link":"/podcasts/onourwatch"},{"name":"Mindshift","link":"/podcasts/mindshift"},{"name":"Consider This","link":"/podcasts/considerthis"},{"name":"Political Breakdown","link":"/podcasts/politicalbreakdown"}]},{"key":"menu4","items":[{"name":"Live Radio","link":"/radio","type":"title"},{"name":"TV","link":"/tv","type":"title"},{"name":"Events","link":"/events","type":"title"},{"name":"For Educators","link":"/education","type":"title"},{"name":"Support KQED","link":"/support","type":"title"},{"name":"About","link":"/about","type":"title"},{"name":"Help Center","link":"https://kqed-helpcenter.kqed.org/s","type":"title"}]}]},"pagesReducer":{},"postsReducer":{"stream_live":{"type":"live","id":"stream_live","audioUrl":"https://streams.kqed.org/kqedradio","title":"Live Stream","excerpt":"Live Stream information currently unavailable.","link":"/radio","featImg":"","label":{"name":"KQED Live","link":"/"}},"stream_kqedNewscast":{"type":"posts","id":"stream_kqedNewscast","audioUrl":"https://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/RDnews/newscast.mp3?_=1","title":"KQED Newscast","featImg":"","label":{"name":"88.5 FM","link":"/"}},"quest_54809":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_54809","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"54809","score":null,"sort":[1369064595000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back","title":"Saved From Living Death: How Genetically Modifying Chestnuts Could Bring Them Back","publishDate":1369064595,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54812\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnut1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54812\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54812\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut1.jpg\" alt=\"We are getting very close to being able to bring back these gorgeous trees that used to dominate forests in the Eastern U.S. Now the big question is whether we should. Image courtesy of Wikipedia commons. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut1.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut1-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">We are getting very close to being able to bring back these gorgeous trees that used to dominate forests in the Eastern U.S. Now the big question is whether we should. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Castanea_dentata_large.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Around the turn of the 20th century, the forests in the eastern U.S. were dominated by the American chestnut. These “sequoia of the east” ruled the roost back then and were the cornerstone tree species. By midcentury, though, almost all of these majestic trees had been turned into shrubs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, this wasn’t magic. Instead, a fungus arrived from Asia that prevented the trees from growing bigger than this. Nowadays the only tall chestnuts are a few that happened to be planted outside of the tree’s old range. And even some of these are starting to be done in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ever since the blight started stunting the chestnut, scientists have been looking for ways to help these trees fight back. And now they may finally be getting close to a solution. Well, actually, \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23038446\">multiple solutions\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The one I want to focus on here is a very clever genetic modification that involves moving a wheat gene into the American chestnut. Early studies look to be very promising and these trees have even been shown to be resistant in the field. The researchers are hoping to get approval soon from the U.S. government for widespread planting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54816\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 265px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnutblight/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54816\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54816\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnutblight.jpg\" alt=\"These orange spots will eventually do this tree in. Just like it has with most every other American chestnut. Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons.\" width=\"265\" height=\"240\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">These orange spots will eventually do this tree in just like it has with most every other American chestnut. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chestnut_blight_on_tree_in_Adams_County_Ohio.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The idea behind this method rests on the knowledge that the chestnut blight needs an acidic environment to do its dirty work. The way this little monster accomplishes this is by making and then pumping oxalic acid into the tree. This is incredibly damaging to the chestnut.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The obvious solution is to find a way to neutralize this oxalic acid. We are looking for a solution as simple as those old chemistry experiments where we neutralized hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide. This is where wheat can help.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wheat makes an enzyme called oxalate oxidase (OxO) that breaks down oxalic acid. The researchers took the gene that has the instructions for this enzyme, the \u003cem>oxo \u003c/em>gene, and put it into the chestnut tree. The tree now makes the enzyme so that it can neutralize the blight’s oxalic acid. This approach appears to be working in making the trees more blight-resistant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When researchers \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23543108\">looked at different trees\u003c/a> that made different amounts of the enzyme, they found that only those that made a lot were resistant to the blight. In other words, there was a correlation between the amount of enzyme and resistance. When the gene was in the right place in the tree’s DNA, it could make a lot of enzyme so the tree could fight off the blight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54819\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnut2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54819\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54819\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut2.jpg\" alt=\"Just because we might be able to turn back time to when these trees rules, should we? Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons.\" width=\"250\" height=\"431\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Just because we might be able to turn back time to when these trees ruled, should we? Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V84_D565_American_chestnut_mitchel_county.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So now we have a GM tree that might restore these forests back to what they were a century or so ago. Now we have to decide whether to plant them or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is not really an issue of the tree having been created through genetic engineering. It is very hard to come up with plausible ways that a tree with this gene could have a significant effect on the environment. The trees aren’t modified so they make their own pesticides, survive spraying by herbicides or anything like that. They simply make an enzyme from wheat that successfully battles a killer fungus by neutralizing an acid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, it has more to do with upsetting the new balance that has arisen over the last few decades in the forests back east. The forests have adjusted to the loss of the American chestnut and reintroducing the tree will only plunge the forests back into a period of readjustment. This temporary state of flux will be disruptive and so should be done for more than nostalgic reasons. There should be some environmental or economic benefit in bringing the American chestnut back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Again, this discussion is not dependent on the fact that the tree is GM. The same arguments can be made for the American/Japanese/Chinese hybrids that look to be resistant too. In fact, this discussion isn’t really that different from those brought up with regards to \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/\">bringing back extinct species\u003c/a>. Like those folks in Monty Python’s \u003cem>The Holy Grail\u003c/em>, the American chestnut isn’t quite dead yet, but it is close.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So we finally have ways to bring back the American chestnut. But it may be that it took us so long to find them that we don’t need them anymore. The forests have moved on, maybe we should too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54832\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 663px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnutrange/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54832\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54832\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ChestnutRange.jpg\" alt=\"Natural range of the American chestnut as reported in 1914. The cross hatching shows the extent of the blight back then. Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons.\" width=\"663\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ChestnutRange.jpg 663w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ChestnutRange-400x362.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 663px) 100vw, 663px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Natural range of the American chestnut as reported in 1914. The cross hatching shows the extent of the blight back then. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V84_D557_Natural_range_of_the_american_chestnut.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The American chestnut was the king of the trees in forests in the eastern U.S. until a fungus from Asia brought them down. We are getting very close to making a resistant American chestnut. Now the question is whether or not we should plant it out in the wild. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1369082247,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":842},"headData":{"title":"Saved From Living Death: How Genetically Modifying Chestnuts Could Bring Them Back | KQED","description":"The American chestnut was the king of the trees in forests in the eastern U.S. until a fungus from Asia brought them down. We are getting very close to making a resistant American chestnut. Now the question is whether or not we should plant it out in the wild. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"54809 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=54809","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/","disqusTitle":"Saved From Living Death: How Genetically Modifying Chestnuts Could Bring Them Back","path":"/quest/54809/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54812\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnut1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54812\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54812\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut1.jpg\" alt=\"We are getting very close to being able to bring back these gorgeous trees that used to dominate forests in the Eastern U.S. Now the big question is whether we should. Image courtesy of Wikipedia commons. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut1.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut1-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">We are getting very close to being able to bring back these gorgeous trees that used to dominate forests in the Eastern U.S. Now the big question is whether we should. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Castanea_dentata_large.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Around the turn of the 20th century, the forests in the eastern U.S. were dominated by the American chestnut. These “sequoia of the east” ruled the roost back then and were the cornerstone tree species. By midcentury, though, almost all of these majestic trees had been turned into shrubs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, this wasn’t magic. Instead, a fungus arrived from Asia that prevented the trees from growing bigger than this. Nowadays the only tall chestnuts are a few that happened to be planted outside of the tree’s old range. And even some of these are starting to be done in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ever since the blight started stunting the chestnut, scientists have been looking for ways to help these trees fight back. And now they may finally be getting close to a solution. Well, actually, \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23038446\">multiple solutions\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The one I want to focus on here is a very clever genetic modification that involves moving a wheat gene into the American chestnut. Early studies look to be very promising and these trees have even been shown to be resistant in the field. The researchers are hoping to get approval soon from the U.S. government for widespread planting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54816\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 265px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnutblight/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54816\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54816\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnutblight.jpg\" alt=\"These orange spots will eventually do this tree in. Just like it has with most every other American chestnut. Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons.\" width=\"265\" height=\"240\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">These orange spots will eventually do this tree in just like it has with most every other American chestnut. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chestnut_blight_on_tree_in_Adams_County_Ohio.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The idea behind this method rests on the knowledge that the chestnut blight needs an acidic environment to do its dirty work. The way this little monster accomplishes this is by making and then pumping oxalic acid into the tree. This is incredibly damaging to the chestnut.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The obvious solution is to find a way to neutralize this oxalic acid. We are looking for a solution as simple as those old chemistry experiments where we neutralized hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide. This is where wheat can help.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wheat makes an enzyme called oxalate oxidase (OxO) that breaks down oxalic acid. The researchers took the gene that has the instructions for this enzyme, the \u003cem>oxo \u003c/em>gene, and put it into the chestnut tree. The tree now makes the enzyme so that it can neutralize the blight’s oxalic acid. This approach appears to be working in making the trees more blight-resistant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When researchers \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23543108\">looked at different trees\u003c/a> that made different amounts of the enzyme, they found that only those that made a lot were resistant to the blight. In other words, there was a correlation between the amount of enzyme and resistance. When the gene was in the right place in the tree’s DNA, it could make a lot of enzyme so the tree could fight off the blight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54819\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnut2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54819\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54819\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Chestnut2.jpg\" alt=\"Just because we might be able to turn back time to when these trees rules, should we? Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons.\" width=\"250\" height=\"431\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Just because we might be able to turn back time to when these trees ruled, should we? Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V84_D565_American_chestnut_mitchel_county.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So now we have a GM tree that might restore these forests back to what they were a century or so ago. Now we have to decide whether to plant them or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is not really an issue of the tree having been created through genetic engineering. It is very hard to come up with plausible ways that a tree with this gene could have a significant effect on the environment. The trees aren’t modified so they make their own pesticides, survive spraying by herbicides or anything like that. They simply make an enzyme from wheat that successfully battles a killer fungus by neutralizing an acid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, it has more to do with upsetting the new balance that has arisen over the last few decades in the forests back east. The forests have adjusted to the loss of the American chestnut and reintroducing the tree will only plunge the forests back into a period of readjustment. This temporary state of flux will be disruptive and so should be done for more than nostalgic reasons. There should be some environmental or economic benefit in bringing the American chestnut back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Again, this discussion is not dependent on the fact that the tree is GM. The same arguments can be made for the American/Japanese/Chinese hybrids that look to be resistant too. In fact, this discussion isn’t really that different from those brought up with regards to \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/\">bringing back extinct species\u003c/a>. Like those folks in Monty Python’s \u003cem>The Holy Grail\u003c/em>, the American chestnut isn’t quite dead yet, but it is close.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So we finally have ways to bring back the American chestnut. But it may be that it took us so long to find them that we don’t need them anymore. The forests have moved on, maybe we should too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54832\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 663px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/20/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back/chestnutrange/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54832\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-54832\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ChestnutRange.jpg\" alt=\"Natural range of the American chestnut as reported in 1914. The cross hatching shows the extent of the blight back then. Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons.\" width=\"663\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ChestnutRange.jpg 663w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ChestnutRange-400x362.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 663px) 100vw, 663px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Natural range of the American chestnut as reported in 1914. The cross hatching shows the extent of the blight back then. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V84_D557_Natural_range_of_the_american_chestnut.jpg\">Wikimedia commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/54809/saved-from-living-death-how-genetically-modifying-chestnuts-could-bring-them-back","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_9"],"tags":["quest_11993","quest_1196","quest_1293","quest_11518","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_54812","label":"quest"},"quest_53732":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_53732","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"53732","score":null,"sort":[1367854251000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"scrounging-for-research-dollars","title":"Scrounging for Research Dollars","publishDate":1367854251,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_53735\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/06/scrounging-for-research-dollars/lab/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-53735\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-53735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Lab.jpg\" alt=\"I don't have time for this, I need to get back to writing grants! Image courtesy of David Shankbone, Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"639\" height=\"340\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Lab.jpg 639w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Lab-400x213.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">I don't have time for this, I need to get back to writing grants! Image courtesy of David Shankbone, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you’re a scientist these days, getting the money to do your research is a lot like getting into Stanford or Yale. Assuming you aren’t rich or connected, being incredibly skilled, hardworking and accomplished isn’t enough. You need to get lucky too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The big difference is that in terms of funding for research, there aren’t really any back up schools. If you don’t get into your Ivy League college, you don’t get your college degree. The best you can do is scrape together a few part-time jobs to stay in business so you can apply over and over again to the same school. No wonder so many scientists are becoming discouraged.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For those of you who don’t know how scientists at universities get their money, here is a quick, crash course. First off, scientists aren’t paid by a university to do their research. They are expected to raise that money on their own. They are given a bit of money to get started, but the university supplies almost no money after that. In fact, they take a good chunk of the money you manage to raise for overhead costs (buildings, electricity, name recognition, etc.).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This didn’t used to be a big deal. Yes, it was an inconvenience but there was enough money so that if you had a good idea and some data to support it, you had a pretty good shot at getting funded. This is no longer true.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These days most higher-level scientists are spending less and less time doing science and more and more time writing grants to try to get research funded. If they don’t have a big name and/or come from a big school, odds are most if not all of the grants won’t be funded. And even if they have the reputation and come from what is deemed to be a big school, they still may end up penniless.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Someone I know at Stanford summarized his situation like this:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This year I'll be submitting six RO1 grants, each of which take about a month's worth of effort. Given that the current funding levels are less than 10%, I'll be lucky if one gets funded so I can keep doing my research. Three of these proposals are seeking funding to continue existing research projects that serve the scientific community; if they aren’t funded, those projects will stop.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you can tell, he is writing as fast as he can to try to keep at least some of his projects going. He is not doing much research on his own, he is just trying to get enough money so the graduate students and other people in his lab can do some science. Not what he was trained for!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not only that, but as he says, some of his ongoing projects will lose their funding. This isn’t because they aren’t worthy. Instead they won’t be funded because they didn’t get the lucky six numbers to win the lottery this round.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_53738\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/06/scrounging-for-research-dollars/obamanas/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-53738\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-53738\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ObamaNAS.jpg\" alt=\"President Obama recognizes the problems with science funding. \" width=\"250\" height=\"230\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">President Obama recognizes the problems with science funding.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Chaotic funding like this slows research down as ideas are not allowed to flower but instead die or go dormant. And even if they are picked up again, research is slowed as the new group has to learn the subtleties of that particular project. This is no way to run a business!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At least some people in government are recognizing this reality. President Obama in a \u003ca href=\"http://www.bizjournals.com/twincities/news/2013/04/29/obama-sequester-could-cost-us-up-to.html\">speech \u003c/a>to the National Academy of Sciences suggested that sequestration could cost two years of research. And this is just the sequestration; it doesn’t include the lost years from the drop off in funding that has already happened in the last few years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you might expect, this isn’t just a U.S. problem. A recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/occams-corner/2013/apr/02/1?CMP=twt_fd\">article \u003c/a>in the Guardian points out that the same sorts of things are happening in Europe and Australia too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a time of decreased funding, we have to decide if having fewer scientists able to do research is OK. If it is, then we can keep the same system in place and have scientists writing grant after grant, trying to raise money for their research. Hopefully the best grant writers are also the best scientists.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we want more scientists able to do research, then we have to decide what to do. One idea might be to streamline the granting process to save money so that more grants are funded. The occasional stinker of a project might slip through, but that might be OK if many more grants can be funded. Another idea would be more money for research, but you can’t squeeze blood from a turnip. There simply may not be the money to fund research under the current system so that a scientist has a reasonable chance at getting funded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The worst part is we have to count on Congress to try to deal with this. I suspect things will go on like they have been for a very long time.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"If you’re a scientist these days, getting the money to do your research is a lot like getting into Stanford or Yale. Assuming you aren’t rich or connected, being incredibly skilled, hardworking and accomplished isn’t enough. You need to get lucky too.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1367973483,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":17,"wordCount":894},"headData":{"title":"Scrounging for Research Dollars | KQED","description":"If you’re a scientist these days, getting the money to do your research is a lot like getting into Stanford or Yale. Assuming you aren’t rich or connected, being incredibly skilled, hardworking and accomplished isn’t enough. You need to get lucky too.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"53732 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=53732","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/06/scrounging-for-research-dollars/","disqusTitle":"Scrounging for Research Dollars","path":"/quest/53732/scrounging-for-research-dollars","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_53735\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/06/scrounging-for-research-dollars/lab/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-53735\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-53735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Lab.jpg\" alt=\"I don't have time for this, I need to get back to writing grants! Image courtesy of David Shankbone, Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"639\" height=\"340\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Lab.jpg 639w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/Lab-400x213.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">I don't have time for this, I need to get back to writing grants! Image courtesy of David Shankbone, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you’re a scientist these days, getting the money to do your research is a lot like getting into Stanford or Yale. Assuming you aren’t rich or connected, being incredibly skilled, hardworking and accomplished isn’t enough. You need to get lucky too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The big difference is that in terms of funding for research, there aren’t really any back up schools. If you don’t get into your Ivy League college, you don’t get your college degree. The best you can do is scrape together a few part-time jobs to stay in business so you can apply over and over again to the same school. No wonder so many scientists are becoming discouraged.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For those of you who don’t know how scientists at universities get their money, here is a quick, crash course. First off, scientists aren’t paid by a university to do their research. They are expected to raise that money on their own. They are given a bit of money to get started, but the university supplies almost no money after that. In fact, they take a good chunk of the money you manage to raise for overhead costs (buildings, electricity, name recognition, etc.).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This didn’t used to be a big deal. Yes, it was an inconvenience but there was enough money so that if you had a good idea and some data to support it, you had a pretty good shot at getting funded. This is no longer true.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These days most higher-level scientists are spending less and less time doing science and more and more time writing grants to try to get research funded. If they don’t have a big name and/or come from a big school, odds are most if not all of the grants won’t be funded. And even if they have the reputation and come from what is deemed to be a big school, they still may end up penniless.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Someone I know at Stanford summarized his situation like this:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This year I'll be submitting six RO1 grants, each of which take about a month's worth of effort. Given that the current funding levels are less than 10%, I'll be lucky if one gets funded so I can keep doing my research. Three of these proposals are seeking funding to continue existing research projects that serve the scientific community; if they aren’t funded, those projects will stop.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you can tell, he is writing as fast as he can to try to keep at least some of his projects going. He is not doing much research on his own, he is just trying to get enough money so the graduate students and other people in his lab can do some science. Not what he was trained for!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not only that, but as he says, some of his ongoing projects will lose their funding. This isn’t because they aren’t worthy. Instead they won’t be funded because they didn’t get the lucky six numbers to win the lottery this round.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_53738\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/05/06/scrounging-for-research-dollars/obamanas/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-53738\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-53738\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/05/ObamaNAS.jpg\" alt=\"President Obama recognizes the problems with science funding. \" width=\"250\" height=\"230\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">President Obama recognizes the problems with science funding.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Chaotic funding like this slows research down as ideas are not allowed to flower but instead die or go dormant. And even if they are picked up again, research is slowed as the new group has to learn the subtleties of that particular project. This is no way to run a business!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At least some people in government are recognizing this reality. President Obama in a \u003ca href=\"http://www.bizjournals.com/twincities/news/2013/04/29/obama-sequester-could-cost-us-up-to.html\">speech \u003c/a>to the National Academy of Sciences suggested that sequestration could cost two years of research. And this is just the sequestration; it doesn’t include the lost years from the drop off in funding that has already happened in the last few years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you might expect, this isn’t just a U.S. problem. A recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/occams-corner/2013/apr/02/1?CMP=twt_fd\">article \u003c/a>in the Guardian points out that the same sorts of things are happening in Europe and Australia too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a time of decreased funding, we have to decide if having fewer scientists able to do research is OK. If it is, then we can keep the same system in place and have scientists writing grant after grant, trying to raise money for their research. Hopefully the best grant writers are also the best scientists.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we want more scientists able to do research, then we have to decide what to do. One idea might be to streamline the granting process to save money so that more grants are funded. The occasional stinker of a project might slip through, but that might be OK if many more grants can be funded. Another idea would be more money for research, but you can’t squeeze blood from a turnip. There simply may not be the money to fund research under the current system so that a scientist has a reasonable chance at getting funded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The worst part is we have to count on Congress to try to deal with this. I suspect things will go on like they have been for a very long time.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/53732/scrounging-for-research-dollars","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_11947","quest_11518","quest_11949","quest_11948","quest_11950","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_53735","label":"quest"},"quest_52574":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_52574","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"52574","score":null,"sort":[1366642830000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good","title":"Fund Basic Research, It’s For Your Own Good","publishDate":1366642830,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52581\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/22/fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good/lamppost/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-52581\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Lamppost.jpg\" alt=\"Basic research shines light on parts of science we didn't even know we should be looking at. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"640\" height=\"362\" class=\"size-full wp-image-52581\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Lamppost.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Lamppost-400x226.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basic research shines light on parts of science we didn't even know we should be looking at. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lamp-post_silhouette_(3795639484).jpg\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The budget proposal by the Obama administration is a mixed bag in terms of \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/news/a-back-seat-for-basic-science-1.12803\">funding for science\u003c/a>. Targeted research received some OK gains but basic research was left with the same or even less money than the previous year. If this trend continues, it won’t just be basic research that takes a hit. It’ll be your health and the U.S. economy too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I know, I know, a scientist bemoaning a cut in funding -- talk about someone with a vested interest! But hear me out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some ways this funding proposal is understandable. We have a dwindling pot of money and we want to fund what will be most likely to pay off. The problem is that this approach keeps science from finding completely new things that will lead to new approaches to treating diseases, identifying new energy sources and so on. We won't make any dramatic leaps in knowledge that fundamentally change how we address our problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Funding predominantly targeted research is like looking for your car keys only in lighted areas of the street. You are missing a whole lot places where the keys could be. Science is similar. Basic research is like adding new light posts—it opens up areas of research we didn’t even know we could explore.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have a listed a few such findings off the top of my head. Because I’m more of a molecular biologist/geneticist, I’ve focused on these topics. There are undoubtedly lots of other examples from this and other areas that I haven’t included. Please feel free to add more to the comments section if you’d like.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Cell cycle regulators\u003c/strong>. Cancer happens when a cell grows out of control and/or refuses to die. Our cells have all sorts of controls in place to keep cells growing and dividing when they should and to also stop growing and even to die when they should too. The key regulators in this process were originally found in the humble baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found them more easily in yeast because of the unique properties of this model system (easily manipulated genetics, fast growing, etc.). Because of that initial basic research, we were able to study this aspect of cancer and begin to identify treatments based on these regulators much sooner than we otherwise would have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Micro RNAs\u003c/strong>. Until the early 1990’s, RNA was mostly thought of as a passive molecule. Basically the instructions found in genes in DNA were copied into RNA. This mRNA was then translated into proteins using two other RNAs, tRNA and rRNA, and it was proteins that did all the heavy lifting in the cell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through the work done in a small, see-through worm called C. elegans, we discovered that tiny RNAs are actually important in controlling how much protein gets made from a gene. These microRNAs are used in people too and have been shown to be involved in a number of cancers. Not only that, but they are incredibly useful tools for exploring how genes work so we can find new targets to go after for cancer research. It would have taken a very long time to find them with targeted research and even longer to figure out they were significant and how they work without basic research. I am not sure we would have found out what they are and/or do for decades if we had just focused on people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52597\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 200px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/22/fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good/insulin-bottle/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-52597\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/insulin-bottle.gif\" alt=\"Without the basic research on enzymes that cut bacterial DNA at certain places and the research on little bits of self-replicating DNA called plasmids, we’d still be getting our insulin from pigs and cadavers.\" width=\"200\" height=\"208\" class=\"size-full wp-image-52597\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/insulin-bottle.gif 200w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/insulin-bottle-32x32.gif 32w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Without the basic research on enzymes that cut bacterial DNA at certain places and the research on little bits of self-replicating DNA called plasmids, we’d still be getting our insulin from pigs and cadavers.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Genetic Engineering\u003c/strong>: What started out as some basic research on bacteria in the 1960’s and early 1970’s, turned into today’s genetic engineering. People who become anemic from cancer treatments can thank basic science for their EPO and people with diabetes can do the same for their insulin. Both are now grown in bacteria using the genetic engineering tools created from basic research. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And the list can go on and on. The human genome project has opened up so many avenues of research that we are still figuring out where to go with it all. The same is true for the basic research that identified stem cells, the structure of DNA, recombination and on and on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we had just focused on targeted research, we would have missed most of this or at least research would have been delayed by years or even decades. Sick people would have suffered longer because we didn’t fund basic research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course I understand the quandary we are in here. If we have to choose between research on \u003ca href=\"http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2013/03/25/ducks-meet-the-culture-wars/\">duck penises\u003c/a> and food stamps for poor families, food stamps would undoubtedly win. This is even if the duck research might help us understand and possible even better treat conditions like preeclampsia, a problem with high blood pressure that can happen with pregnancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But we do need to think about how we can get the most bang for our limited science research dollars. Can we free up some money by streamlining how scientists are funded? Should we change how we assess whether scientific research has been successful or not? Should we divvy up the money in different ways with an increased percentage going to basic research?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don’t have the answers to these questions but the folks in Washington need to start thinking about this. I don’t think we want to give up our strong science position in the world just yet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/Education/ELSI/research-main.html\">More on applied vs. basic research\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.genomicron.evolverzone.com/2008/02/basic-research-is-lifeline-of-practical/\">Importance of basic research\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The budget proposal by the Obama administration is a mixed bag in terms of funding for science.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1367424377,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":18,"wordCount":988},"headData":{"title":"Fund Basic Research, It’s For Your Own Good | KQED","description":"The budget proposal by the Obama administration is a mixed bag in terms of funding for science.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"52574 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=52574","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/22/fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good/","disqusTitle":"Fund Basic Research, It’s For Your Own Good","path":"/quest/52574/fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52581\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/22/fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good/lamppost/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-52581\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Lamppost.jpg\" alt=\"Basic research shines light on parts of science we didn't even know we should be looking at. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"640\" height=\"362\" class=\"size-full wp-image-52581\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Lamppost.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Lamppost-400x226.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basic research shines light on parts of science we didn't even know we should be looking at. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lamp-post_silhouette_(3795639484).jpg\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The budget proposal by the Obama administration is a mixed bag in terms of \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/news/a-back-seat-for-basic-science-1.12803\">funding for science\u003c/a>. Targeted research received some OK gains but basic research was left with the same or even less money than the previous year. If this trend continues, it won’t just be basic research that takes a hit. It’ll be your health and the U.S. economy too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I know, I know, a scientist bemoaning a cut in funding -- talk about someone with a vested interest! But hear me out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some ways this funding proposal is understandable. We have a dwindling pot of money and we want to fund what will be most likely to pay off. The problem is that this approach keeps science from finding completely new things that will lead to new approaches to treating diseases, identifying new energy sources and so on. We won't make any dramatic leaps in knowledge that fundamentally change how we address our problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Funding predominantly targeted research is like looking for your car keys only in lighted areas of the street. You are missing a whole lot places where the keys could be. Science is similar. Basic research is like adding new light posts—it opens up areas of research we didn’t even know we could explore.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have a listed a few such findings off the top of my head. Because I’m more of a molecular biologist/geneticist, I’ve focused on these topics. There are undoubtedly lots of other examples from this and other areas that I haven’t included. Please feel free to add more to the comments section if you’d like.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Cell cycle regulators\u003c/strong>. Cancer happens when a cell grows out of control and/or refuses to die. Our cells have all sorts of controls in place to keep cells growing and dividing when they should and to also stop growing and even to die when they should too. The key regulators in this process were originally found in the humble baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found them more easily in yeast because of the unique properties of this model system (easily manipulated genetics, fast growing, etc.). Because of that initial basic research, we were able to study this aspect of cancer and begin to identify treatments based on these regulators much sooner than we otherwise would have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Micro RNAs\u003c/strong>. Until the early 1990’s, RNA was mostly thought of as a passive molecule. Basically the instructions found in genes in DNA were copied into RNA. This mRNA was then translated into proteins using two other RNAs, tRNA and rRNA, and it was proteins that did all the heavy lifting in the cell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through the work done in a small, see-through worm called C. elegans, we discovered that tiny RNAs are actually important in controlling how much protein gets made from a gene. These microRNAs are used in people too and have been shown to be involved in a number of cancers. Not only that, but they are incredibly useful tools for exploring how genes work so we can find new targets to go after for cancer research. It would have taken a very long time to find them with targeted research and even longer to figure out they were significant and how they work without basic research. I am not sure we would have found out what they are and/or do for decades if we had just focused on people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52597\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 200px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/22/fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good/insulin-bottle/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-52597\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/insulin-bottle.gif\" alt=\"Without the basic research on enzymes that cut bacterial DNA at certain places and the research on little bits of self-replicating DNA called plasmids, we’d still be getting our insulin from pigs and cadavers.\" width=\"200\" height=\"208\" class=\"size-full wp-image-52597\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/insulin-bottle.gif 200w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/insulin-bottle-32x32.gif 32w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Without the basic research on enzymes that cut bacterial DNA at certain places and the research on little bits of self-replicating DNA called plasmids, we’d still be getting our insulin from pigs and cadavers.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Genetic Engineering\u003c/strong>: What started out as some basic research on bacteria in the 1960’s and early 1970’s, turned into today’s genetic engineering. People who become anemic from cancer treatments can thank basic science for their EPO and people with diabetes can do the same for their insulin. Both are now grown in bacteria using the genetic engineering tools created from basic research. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And the list can go on and on. The human genome project has opened up so many avenues of research that we are still figuring out where to go with it all. The same is true for the basic research that identified stem cells, the structure of DNA, recombination and on and on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we had just focused on targeted research, we would have missed most of this or at least research would have been delayed by years or even decades. Sick people would have suffered longer because we didn’t fund basic research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course I understand the quandary we are in here. If we have to choose between research on \u003ca href=\"http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2013/03/25/ducks-meet-the-culture-wars/\">duck penises\u003c/a> and food stamps for poor families, food stamps would undoubtedly win. This is even if the duck research might help us understand and possible even better treat conditions like preeclampsia, a problem with high blood pressure that can happen with pregnancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But we do need to think about how we can get the most bang for our limited science research dollars. Can we free up some money by streamlining how scientists are funded? Should we change how we assess whether scientific research has been successful or not? Should we divvy up the money in different ways with an increased percentage going to basic research?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don’t have the answers to these questions but the folks in Washington need to start thinking about this. I don’t think we want to give up our strong science position in the world just yet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/Education/ELSI/research-main.html\">More on applied vs. basic research\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.genomicron.evolverzone.com/2008/02/basic-research-is-lifeline-of-practical/\">Importance of basic research\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/52574/fund-basic-research-its-for-your-own-good","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_11914","quest_11913","quest_13202","quest_3752","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_52581","label":"quest"},"quest_51966":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_51966","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"51966","score":null,"sort":[1365433221000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited","title":"DNA Ancestry Tests: Simultaneously Powerful and Limited","publishDate":1365433221,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51967\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/08/dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited/obama/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51967\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Obama.jpg\" alt=\"Using a common DNA ancestry test, President Obama would be 100% Caucasian.\" width=\"640\" height=\"358\" class=\"size-full wp-image-51967\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Obama.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Obama-400x224.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Using a common DNA ancestry test, President Obama would be 100% Caucasian.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Sometimes genetic tests aren’t as useful as you think they will be. For example, if President Obama were to take a common ancestry DNA test, it would almost certainly come back as 100% Caucasian. Useful, huh?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This sort of test, a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) test, can look into the deep past but it can only see mom’s side of the family. And it isn’t even really that powerful. It not only ignores dad’s side of the family, but in reality it can only see a sliver of mom’s as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So with this test you can see your mom and her mom and her mom’s mom and so on. You can also see your mom’s sister and her kids and your grandma’s sister and her kids. What you won’t see, though, is your mom’s brother’s kids or your grandma’s brother’s kids or any male relative’s on your mom’s side of the family. It really only follows back a direct, specific maternal line.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is why President Obama would look Caucasian in this test...because his mom is Caucasian. Now of course with a little knowledge about these sorts of tests, President Obama wouldn’t be surprised. But not everyone knows they have a relative on their direct maternal line who is of a different ethnic group. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I know of a case where a self-identified African-American woman had a mtDNA test done to try to determine what part of Africa her ancestors came from. Apparently they came from Europe; her test came back 100% Caucasian. This is despite the fact that all her living relatives were African-American and no one can remember any relatives who were Caucasian. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As this result shows, we don’t have to come up with an explanation like President Obama’s—it doesn’t have to be that her mom was Caucasian. Because of how these tests work, the DNA from this test could have come from a woman five, ten or even fifty generations back. Mitochondrial DNA passes from mother to child virtually unchanged, generation after generation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this means is that there is no dilution of mtDNA as the generations pass. Mom’s mtDNA is pretty much the same as grandma’s which is pretty much the same as great grandma’s and so on. This DNA doesn’t dilute over time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here is one way to show what might have happened to this woman’s DNA over the generations:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/08/dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited/mtdnaft3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51970\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/mtDNAft3.jpg\" alt=\"mtDNAft3\" width=\"400\" height=\"281\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-51970\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the diagram, circles are women and squares are men. Also, white means Caucasian and black means African.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the left, we are following the mtDNA of the tested woman and on the right we are following the rest of her DNA. She is the circle at the bottom of the family tree on each side.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What you can see on the right is that over the generations, the original Caucasian DNA is being diluted out. It goes from 50% to 25% to 12.5% and so on as you’d expect. The same isn’t true for the mtDNA on the left. It stays Caucasian generation after generation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So if we look at most of her DNA, she looks African-American. We may not even see that sliver of Caucasian! But her mtDNA is 100% Caucasian. No wonder she was confused.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Obviously she can’t find out what part of Africa her ancestors came from with this test. But let’s say she got a more typical result and her mtDNA could be traced back to some part of Africa. What does that result really mean?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the result here shows, it may not mean as much as she hopes. Imagine the previous scenario but instead of being Caucasian, the woman from five or ten generations ago came from a different part of Africa than the rest of her relatives. She would come away thinking her relatives were from one part of Africa when most of them were really from another. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She would not get the answer she was looking for but there is no way for her to know she got the “wrong” answer. She would simply go on believing she was from a part of Africa she really wasn’t.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately, there really isn’t a better DNA test for looking back in time. The most useful tests, the autosomal ones that look at all our DNA, can only go back four or five generations before becoming \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/12/10/doing-the-recombination-shuffle/\">hopelessly jumbled\u003c/a>. For most African-Americans, this isn’t far enough back to find their African ancestors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other kind of test, the Y chromosome test, can go as far back along the paternal line as the mtDNA test can along the maternal line but it suffers from the same problems. In fact, a surprising number (\u003ca href=\"http://www.africanancestry.com/patriclan.html\">35%?\u003c/a>) of African-American men actually have Caucasian Y chromosomes (well, given plantation life, maybe not so surprising). None of these men will learn anything about their African heritage with this test. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the bottom line is don’t put too much faith into DNA testing alone. It is kind of fun to trace back your history this way but you are really only following one strand of your ancestral web back in time. The rest of the web is invisible to DNA testing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course mtDNA tests have been incredibly useful scientifically. They’ve let us \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask386\">trace human migration\u003c/a> as we spread out of Africa and even trace all of our lines back to a single woman, \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/y-adam-and-mitochondrial-eve\">Mitochondrial Eve\u003c/a>. Recently these tests were even used to confirm that a skeleton found under a parking garage in England \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/richard-iii\">belonged to King Richard III\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just don’t count on mtDNA tests giving you a broad understanding of your own family history. They won’t.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Don’t count on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) ancestry tests giving you a broad understanding of your own family history. They won’t.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1442789141,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":23,"wordCount":1024},"headData":{"title":"DNA Ancestry Tests: Simultaneously Powerful and Limited | KQED","description":"Don’t count on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) ancestry tests giving you a broad understanding of your own family history. They won’t.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"51966 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=51966","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/08/dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited/","disqusTitle":"DNA Ancestry Tests: Simultaneously Powerful and Limited","source":"Biology","sourceUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/category/biology/","path":"/quest/51966/dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51967\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/08/dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited/obama/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51967\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Obama.jpg\" alt=\"Using a common DNA ancestry test, President Obama would be 100% Caucasian.\" width=\"640\" height=\"358\" class=\"size-full wp-image-51967\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Obama.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/Obama-400x224.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Using a common DNA ancestry test, President Obama would be 100% Caucasian.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Sometimes genetic tests aren’t as useful as you think they will be. For example, if President Obama were to take a common ancestry DNA test, it would almost certainly come back as 100% Caucasian. Useful, huh?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This sort of test, a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) test, can look into the deep past but it can only see mom’s side of the family. And it isn’t even really that powerful. It not only ignores dad’s side of the family, but in reality it can only see a sliver of mom’s as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So with this test you can see your mom and her mom and her mom’s mom and so on. You can also see your mom’s sister and her kids and your grandma’s sister and her kids. What you won’t see, though, is your mom’s brother’s kids or your grandma’s brother’s kids or any male relative’s on your mom’s side of the family. It really only follows back a direct, specific maternal line.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is why President Obama would look Caucasian in this test...because his mom is Caucasian. Now of course with a little knowledge about these sorts of tests, President Obama wouldn’t be surprised. But not everyone knows they have a relative on their direct maternal line who is of a different ethnic group. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I know of a case where a self-identified African-American woman had a mtDNA test done to try to determine what part of Africa her ancestors came from. Apparently they came from Europe; her test came back 100% Caucasian. This is despite the fact that all her living relatives were African-American and no one can remember any relatives who were Caucasian. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As this result shows, we don’t have to come up with an explanation like President Obama’s—it doesn’t have to be that her mom was Caucasian. Because of how these tests work, the DNA from this test could have come from a woman five, ten or even fifty generations back. Mitochondrial DNA passes from mother to child virtually unchanged, generation after generation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this means is that there is no dilution of mtDNA as the generations pass. Mom’s mtDNA is pretty much the same as grandma’s which is pretty much the same as great grandma’s and so on. This DNA doesn’t dilute over time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here is one way to show what might have happened to this woman’s DNA over the generations:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/08/dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited/mtdnaft3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51970\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/mtDNAft3.jpg\" alt=\"mtDNAft3\" width=\"400\" height=\"281\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-51970\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the diagram, circles are women and squares are men. Also, white means Caucasian and black means African.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the left, we are following the mtDNA of the tested woman and on the right we are following the rest of her DNA. She is the circle at the bottom of the family tree on each side.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What you can see on the right is that over the generations, the original Caucasian DNA is being diluted out. It goes from 50% to 25% to 12.5% and so on as you’d expect. The same isn’t true for the mtDNA on the left. It stays Caucasian generation after generation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So if we look at most of her DNA, she looks African-American. We may not even see that sliver of Caucasian! But her mtDNA is 100% Caucasian. No wonder she was confused.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Obviously she can’t find out what part of Africa her ancestors came from with this test. But let’s say she got a more typical result and her mtDNA could be traced back to some part of Africa. What does that result really mean?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the result here shows, it may not mean as much as she hopes. Imagine the previous scenario but instead of being Caucasian, the woman from five or ten generations ago came from a different part of Africa than the rest of her relatives. She would come away thinking her relatives were from one part of Africa when most of them were really from another. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She would not get the answer she was looking for but there is no way for her to know she got the “wrong” answer. She would simply go on believing she was from a part of Africa she really wasn’t.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately, there really isn’t a better DNA test for looking back in time. The most useful tests, the autosomal ones that look at all our DNA, can only go back four or five generations before becoming \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/12/10/doing-the-recombination-shuffle/\">hopelessly jumbled\u003c/a>. For most African-Americans, this isn’t far enough back to find their African ancestors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other kind of test, the Y chromosome test, can go as far back along the paternal line as the mtDNA test can along the maternal line but it suffers from the same problems. In fact, a surprising number (\u003ca href=\"http://www.africanancestry.com/patriclan.html\">35%?\u003c/a>) of African-American men actually have Caucasian Y chromosomes (well, given plantation life, maybe not so surprising). None of these men will learn anything about their African heritage with this test. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the bottom line is don’t put too much faith into DNA testing alone. It is kind of fun to trace back your history this way but you are really only following one strand of your ancestral web back in time. The rest of the web is invisible to DNA testing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course mtDNA tests have been incredibly useful scientifically. They’ve let us \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask386\">trace human migration\u003c/a> as we spread out of Africa and even trace all of our lines back to a single woman, \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/y-adam-and-mitochondrial-eve\">Mitochondrial Eve\u003c/a>. Recently these tests were even used to confirm that a skeleton found under a parking garage in England \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/richard-iii\">belonged to King Richard III\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just don’t count on mtDNA tests giving you a broad understanding of your own family history. They won’t.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/51966/dna-ancestry-tests-simultaneously-powerful-and-limited","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_11873","quest_11872","quest_11194","quest_11871","quest_1890","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_51967","label":"source_quest_51966"},"quest_51124":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_51124","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"51124","score":null,"sort":[1364223645000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species","title":"Resurrection Biology: The Reality of Bringing Back Extinct Species","publishDate":1364223645,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51147\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 607px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/gonebanner/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51147\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-51147\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneBanner.jpg\" alt=\"Someday we might be able to resurrect some of these long extinct species. The species depicted here have all become extinct since the mid 1700s and the colonization of the New World. Part of the painting GONE from 2004, 4'x3', oil on canvas painted by Isabella Kirkland, artist and research associate at The California Academy of Sciences. \" width=\"607\" height=\"331\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneBanner.jpg 607w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneBanner-400x218.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 607px) 100vw, 607px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Someday we might be able to resurrect some of these long extinct species. The species depicted here have all become extinct since the mid 1700s and the colonization of the New World. Part of the painting GONE from 2004, 4'x3', oil on canvas painted by Isabella Kirkland, artist and research associate at The California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There has been a lot of buzz of late about bringing back extinct species like mammoths or passenger pigeons. While it might be a good idea to start thinking about these possibilities, we are years or even decades away from being able to actually pull this off with most long dead animals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem isn’t reading the DNA...we are actually getting pretty good at that. And the problem isn’t even making the DNA. It would be quite a stretch to make a complete set of mammoth DNA but with a lot of time, money and effort, we could probably do it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, the real problem is getting a cell to read any DNA we make in the lab. See, DNA has to be folded just so to fit inside the cell and we simply cannot do this on our own yet. And when you think about the proportions of what we’re dealing with, it becomes pretty obvious why we can’t.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An animal’s DNA is stored in the nucleus inside the cell. A human has six feet of DNA in each cell and the average nucleus has a diameter of about six micrometers. So the cell manages to stuff two meters of DNA into this tiny space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To give you an idea what we’re up against, imagine the nucleus is the size of the average baseball, almost three inches in diameter. If our nucleus were this big, we’d need to cram 75,000 feet or 14.2 miles of DNA in there. Talk about a daunting challenge!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We can’t just force it in either. We need to fold it perfectly to make sure the right genes are in the right place to be turned on properly. The DNA has to be twisted around little spools called histones and then twisted and folded and twisted some more until you get the nice compact shape of a chromosome.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now, only a cell can pull this off and until we figure out how to get lots of manmade DNA into a cell to have the cell fold it for us, we are stuck cloning with living or properly frozen cells. We simply don’t have this kind of material for most extinct animals. But we do have frozen cells for a few.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51138\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/ibexclone2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51138\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-51138\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/IbexClone2.jpg\" alt=\"For cloning to work right now, you need to start with an intact cell. We have this for the extinct Pyrenean ibex.\" width=\"250\" height=\"586\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">For cloning to work right now, you need to start with an intact cell. We have this for the extinct Pyrenean ibex.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One likely candidate for resurrection is the Pyrenean ibex. Scientists managed to collect and save cells from the last of these wild goats before she died in 2000. These cells are now being used to try to bring this goat back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Basically, as outlined to the right, scientists first replace the nucleus in a goat egg with a nucleus from the ibex. This won’t grow and develop properly because the ibex DNA is configured to be used by an adult cell. So the next step is to use chemicals and/or electricity to reconfigure the DNA to be useful to an embryo. Then this “fertilized” egg is grown a bit, placed in a surrogate mother goat and then, if everything goes well, the species is reborn.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So far things have not gone that well. The tricky part in this is reconfiguring the adult DNA into embryonic DNA. If this isn’t done just right, the embryo won’t develop correctly. And finding the right conditions is done by trial and error and is different for different animals. What this means experimentally is a lot of failed pregnancies and a lot of sick and dead baby goats before hitting on the right conditions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This might be acceptable in this case to bring the goat back but maybe again it isn’t. Are lots of goats dying early, horrible deaths worth bringing back the ibex? I don’t know.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question gets even harder when we are dealing with mammoths. Here we need to do more experimentation either because we need to try to get the DNA folded correctly or we need to get useful nuclei from cells frozen improperly in the Siberian tundra for thousands of years. Either way, we are going to have many more failed pregnancies and dead baby mammoths.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, the surrogate here will be an elephant. Elephants are smaller than mammoths and have a gestation period of nearly two years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At first the gestation period won’t matter because the failed pregnancies won’t go very long. After hundreds or thousands of failed pregnancies, scientists will have tweaked the conditions enough so that some mammoths will get closer to birth and eventually even be born. Now we’ll have to wait a couple of years to see how our new conditions worked and to make the next tweaks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This all gets a lot more horrible if a mammoth baby is too big for an elephant to deliver naturally. If they are, we’d either need to have them born prematurely or do something like a C-section on the surrogate mother. This all sounds like a nightmare.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was troubling enough thinking about all those dead and deformed goats but elephants are a whole different matter. In this scenario, these intelligent, caring animals are forced to endure multiple failed pregnancies and many dead babies. I am not sure how well elephants would hold up emotionally as mammoth factories.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And let’s not even go down the Neanderthal road! All these same issues would be there except we’d be dealing with near-human babies and women surrogates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These sorts of things mean we need to really think about why we want mammoths, Neanderthals, Dodo birds or whatever. Are the benefits of resurrecting these species worth the risks to the individuals that need to carry them? And is it worth the suffering of all the individuals of that species who die an early, horrible death? There almost certainly needs to be a better reason than coolness to bring any of these animals back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, it may be best to wait until we can invent some sort of artificial womb. At least then we’d spare the pain and suffering of the surrogates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://longnow.org/revive/tedxdeextinction/\">TEDx DeExtinction\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://longnow.org/revive/\">Foundation focused on bringing back species\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51152\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/gonefull/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51152\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-51152\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneFull.jpg\" alt=\"Full version of the painting Gone.\" width=\"630\" height=\"842\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneFull.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneFull-400x535.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Full version of the painting Gone.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Click \u003ca href=\"http://longnow.org/revive/\">here \u003c/a>to see the key for all of these extinct species.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":null,"status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1366755587,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":24,"wordCount":1147},"headData":{"title":"Resurrection Biology: The Reality of Bringing Back Extinct Species | KQED","description":"There has been a lot of buzz of late about bringing back extinct species like mammoths or passenger pigeons. While it might be a good idea to start thinking about these possibilities, we are years or even decades away from being able to actually pull this off with most long dead animals. The problem isn’t","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"51124 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=51124","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/","disqusTitle":"Resurrection Biology: The Reality of Bringing Back Extinct Species","path":"/quest/51124/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51147\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 607px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/gonebanner/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51147\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-51147\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneBanner.jpg\" alt=\"Someday we might be able to resurrect some of these long extinct species. The species depicted here have all become extinct since the mid 1700s and the colonization of the New World. Part of the painting GONE from 2004, 4'x3', oil on canvas painted by Isabella Kirkland, artist and research associate at The California Academy of Sciences. \" width=\"607\" height=\"331\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneBanner.jpg 607w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneBanner-400x218.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 607px) 100vw, 607px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Someday we might be able to resurrect some of these long extinct species. The species depicted here have all become extinct since the mid 1700s and the colonization of the New World. Part of the painting GONE from 2004, 4'x3', oil on canvas painted by Isabella Kirkland, artist and research associate at The California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There has been a lot of buzz of late about bringing back extinct species like mammoths or passenger pigeons. While it might be a good idea to start thinking about these possibilities, we are years or even decades away from being able to actually pull this off with most long dead animals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem isn’t reading the DNA...we are actually getting pretty good at that. And the problem isn’t even making the DNA. It would be quite a stretch to make a complete set of mammoth DNA but with a lot of time, money and effort, we could probably do it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, the real problem is getting a cell to read any DNA we make in the lab. See, DNA has to be folded just so to fit inside the cell and we simply cannot do this on our own yet. And when you think about the proportions of what we’re dealing with, it becomes pretty obvious why we can’t.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An animal’s DNA is stored in the nucleus inside the cell. A human has six feet of DNA in each cell and the average nucleus has a diameter of about six micrometers. So the cell manages to stuff two meters of DNA into this tiny space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To give you an idea what we’re up against, imagine the nucleus is the size of the average baseball, almost three inches in diameter. If our nucleus were this big, we’d need to cram 75,000 feet or 14.2 miles of DNA in there. Talk about a daunting challenge!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We can’t just force it in either. We need to fold it perfectly to make sure the right genes are in the right place to be turned on properly. The DNA has to be twisted around little spools called histones and then twisted and folded and twisted some more until you get the nice compact shape of a chromosome.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now, only a cell can pull this off and until we figure out how to get lots of manmade DNA into a cell to have the cell fold it for us, we are stuck cloning with living or properly frozen cells. We simply don’t have this kind of material for most extinct animals. But we do have frozen cells for a few.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51138\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/ibexclone2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51138\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-51138\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/IbexClone2.jpg\" alt=\"For cloning to work right now, you need to start with an intact cell. We have this for the extinct Pyrenean ibex.\" width=\"250\" height=\"586\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">For cloning to work right now, you need to start with an intact cell. We have this for the extinct Pyrenean ibex.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One likely candidate for resurrection is the Pyrenean ibex. Scientists managed to collect and save cells from the last of these wild goats before she died in 2000. These cells are now being used to try to bring this goat back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Basically, as outlined to the right, scientists first replace the nucleus in a goat egg with a nucleus from the ibex. This won’t grow and develop properly because the ibex DNA is configured to be used by an adult cell. So the next step is to use chemicals and/or electricity to reconfigure the DNA to be useful to an embryo. Then this “fertilized” egg is grown a bit, placed in a surrogate mother goat and then, if everything goes well, the species is reborn.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So far things have not gone that well. The tricky part in this is reconfiguring the adult DNA into embryonic DNA. If this isn’t done just right, the embryo won’t develop correctly. And finding the right conditions is done by trial and error and is different for different animals. What this means experimentally is a lot of failed pregnancies and a lot of sick and dead baby goats before hitting on the right conditions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This might be acceptable in this case to bring the goat back but maybe again it isn’t. Are lots of goats dying early, horrible deaths worth bringing back the ibex? I don’t know.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question gets even harder when we are dealing with mammoths. Here we need to do more experimentation either because we need to try to get the DNA folded correctly or we need to get useful nuclei from cells frozen improperly in the Siberian tundra for thousands of years. Either way, we are going to have many more failed pregnancies and dead baby mammoths.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, the surrogate here will be an elephant. Elephants are smaller than mammoths and have a gestation period of nearly two years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At first the gestation period won’t matter because the failed pregnancies won’t go very long. After hundreds or thousands of failed pregnancies, scientists will have tweaked the conditions enough so that some mammoths will get closer to birth and eventually even be born. Now we’ll have to wait a couple of years to see how our new conditions worked and to make the next tweaks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This all gets a lot more horrible if a mammoth baby is too big for an elephant to deliver naturally. If they are, we’d either need to have them born prematurely or do something like a C-section on the surrogate mother. This all sounds like a nightmare.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was troubling enough thinking about all those dead and deformed goats but elephants are a whole different matter. In this scenario, these intelligent, caring animals are forced to endure multiple failed pregnancies and many dead babies. I am not sure how well elephants would hold up emotionally as mammoth factories.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And let’s not even go down the Neanderthal road! All these same issues would be there except we’d be dealing with near-human babies and women surrogates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These sorts of things mean we need to really think about why we want mammoths, Neanderthals, Dodo birds or whatever. Are the benefits of resurrecting these species worth the risks to the individuals that need to carry them? And is it worth the suffering of all the individuals of that species who die an early, horrible death? There almost certainly needs to be a better reason than coolness to bring any of these animals back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, it may be best to wait until we can invent some sort of artificial womb. At least then we’d spare the pain and suffering of the surrogates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://longnow.org/revive/tedxdeextinction/\">TEDx DeExtinction\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://longnow.org/revive/\">Foundation focused on bringing back species\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51152\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/25/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species/gonefull/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51152\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-51152\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneFull.jpg\" alt=\"Full version of the painting Gone.\" width=\"630\" height=\"842\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneFull.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GoneFull-400x535.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Full version of the painting Gone.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Click \u003ca href=\"http://longnow.org/revive/\">here \u003c/a>to see the key for all of these extinct species.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/51124/resurrection-biology-the-reality-of-bringing-back-extinct-species","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_326","quest_11848","quest_1047","quest_13202","quest_11849","quest_11850","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_51147","label":"quest"},"quest_50649":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_50649","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"50649","score":null,"sort":[1363014003000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"engineering-a-virus-free-future","title":"Engineering a Virus-Free Future","publishDate":1363014003,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50657\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/hivdocking/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50657\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg\" alt=\"One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"630\" height=\"361\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50657\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I have been reading a book called \u003ca href=\"http://www.amazon.com/Regenesis-Synthetic-Biology-Reinvent-Ourselves/dp/0465021751/ref=tmm_hrd_title_popover?ie=UTF8&qid=1362680681&sr=8-1\">Regenesis \u003c/a>where in one part the authors propose a way to re-engineer the human race so all people are resistant to all viruses, known and unknown. This will theoretically be possible in the next few decades (or even sooner) and, if done right, is predicted to make us resistant for a very long time and possibly even forever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as you might guess, something this radical does not come without risks. There are many possible health risks involved in a major reshaping of human DNA that essentially divorces us from the nature around us. And there are many ethical dilemmas in its implementation as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The benefits of a virus-free world are obvious. But it is an open question whether the risks outweigh these benefits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science of Complete Viral Resistance\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The science behind all of this is plausible although it will definitely be a daunting technological challenge. The basic idea it is to change our operating system—we will be Macs in a PC world and so be immune to those pesky PC viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nature’s operating system is the genetic code. At its simplest the code is made up of 64, three letter words called codons. This is the language our genes are written in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Viruses are able to infect our cells and make us sick because they use the same operating system. Basically a virus enters a cell and gives it a series of commands via the genetic code to make new viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we engineer our cells to speak a different language, then the viral instructions will be meaningless. Our cell will ignore the virus and eventually clear it out of our system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Re-engineering a code that has been around for a billion years might sound hard, but one of its properties makes it doable. Many of those 64 words mean pretty much the same thing. Our genetic code has a lot of synonyms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50664\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticcodesm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50664\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/geneticCodeSM.gif\" alt=\"A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\" width=\"250\" height=\"220\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50664\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The idea would be to change the meaning of a few of the synonyms. What we’d do is pick a codon, maybe TAG, and change all of the TAGs in our genes to its synonyms, TGA and TAA. Then we’d make TAG code for something else.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now when a virus enters the cell, its instructions to the cell are gibberish. Whenever it gives cells an instruction with TAG somewhere in it, the cell misreads it and so can’t do as it is told. The cell can then calmly ignore the virus and go about its business. (Click \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/viral-resistance\">here \u003c/a>to learn more about the science behind this.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Making the resistance more or less permanent requires changing more than one synonym. Viruses are small and mutate like crazy so we have to make it so the virus requires at least ten and probably many more simultaneous mutations to become resistant. The only way to do this is if we make all the changes in one fell swoop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This all sounds like some Hollywood \"B movie\" but \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/15/redesigning-life/\">scientists are very close\u003c/a> to testing this theory out in \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em>, a common lab bacterium. Scientists have made the appropriate changes and are stitching together the DNA as we speak. Soon we should know if this strain of \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em> is immune to the phages that plague it. (Phages are what viruses that attack bacteria are called.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this works in bacteria, then it might work in people too. But it isn’t a for sure thing. We are more complicated than a bacterium and the genetic code is more complicated than it first appears.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big challenge that has important implications is that we can’t make the necessary changes a bit at a time. If we do that, viruses will mutate along with us and keep up. We need to make all the tens of thousands of changes all at once. This is where the trouble can start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Technical Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are at least two sets of technical risks associated with doing something like this. The first just has to do with how often we make a mistake while changing tens of thousands of our DNA letters. No matter how good we get, there will always be a chance that we make a mistake. And since these changes are in genes, some of the mistakes could be really bad for our health. I am not sure we can ever be careful enough to not introduce a few errors here and there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The second big risk is that we do not fully understand how our DNA works. What if there are very small genes we don’t know about that use the synonym that we have changed? The consequences could be severe if that “genelet” plays an important role in the cell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another problem in that the synonyms may not be as alike as we think. We’ve known for a while that not all synonymous codons are created equal. For example, sometimes when we try to optimize a gene by selecting what we think are better codons, the gene stops working. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50677\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticengineering/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50677\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg\" alt=\"We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50677\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg 250w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 250px) 100vw, 250px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.yeastgenome.org/the-rhythm-of-ribosomes\">study \u003c/a>just out in yeast confirms that some of the specific codons in a gene are there for a reason—not all synonymous codons are used in the same way in the cell. It looks like some words are preferred at certain parts of a gene. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means we may not be able to simply swap one codon out for another in a gene. And since all the genes are competing for a limited amount of machinery using specific codons, we don’t really know what effect eliminating all these codons will have on all 20,000 or 25,000 of our genes. We may slow things down as the parts of the cell all compete for these limited resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What makes each of these problems worse is that we will need to make all the changes at once in a cell to keep viruses from catching up to us. We will be able to test a lot beforehand, but it may not be enough. We may miss something and that would be unacceptable here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, we are talking about people here not bacteria, yeast or daisies. Mistakes mean a dead baby or one with disabilities. I am not sure there will ever be enough testing to make this safe enough to be worthwhile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Implementation Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you’ve seen, there are definitely health risks associated with doing this (I’m sure I haven’t thought of them all). But the ethical risks might be worse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These changes can’t be made in any of us alive today. They would have to be made by inserting the changed DNA into a stem cell and coaxing that stem cell into becoming an embryo. This means that instead of changing the current human race, we’d be creating a new one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An immediate problem is how we choose who gets to be virus-resistant. And scarily still, whose DNA gets to live on. So the first step will be figuring out who gets to have virus-free children and how we “choose” what DNA that child will have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way would be to make it so everyone who wants a child gets the option of having the child be virus-resistant. Maybe parents fertilize an egg the old fashioned way, the embryo’s DNA is sequenced and the DNA made matches this embryo’s. This makes me a little squeamish and is a strange gray area. We have eliminated the embryo but essentially cloned it…is the child truly identical?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50683\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 150px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/atcgpeople-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50683\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/atcgPeople.jpg\" alt=\"This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\" width=\"150\" height=\"184\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50683\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another option would be to use a computer to generate a mix of the parents’ DNA and then to make that DNA and grow it into a child. This is scary as you know people will be tempted to choose the DNA rather than letting it come down to chance. We’ll definitely end up with a very different human race in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Both of these would be pretty expensive dollar-wise but are better than an option where a chosen few get to have virus-free kids. How would that decision be made and who gets to make it? (Hint: The poor would be poorly represented.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whatever option we choose, there will still be another key issue. Engineered humans and natural humans won’t be able to have kids together. This opens up a whole can of worms if the two groups are around together for any length of time. And chances are they will (unless we outlaw having kids the old fashioned way). We will have artificially speciated the human race!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no way that comes out well. Most likely we’ll split into a group of haves and have nots decided by genetics. The engineered humans will have kids together and the natural humans will too. Occasionally a natural human could make enough money to have an engineered child but for the most part they’d be separated. I’ll let you paint that dystopic future in your head!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are a few of the ethical dilemmas I can think of off the top of my head. I am sure there are many more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This may all seem like a problem for Captain Kirk, but it is closer than you might think. It is really important to start talking about this stuff now so we can think out how we are going to deal with these sorts of decisions in coming decades. Before we know it, the need to decide will be upon us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>(And I didn’t even bring up the scary possibility of some Bond villain creating a virus-resistant army and then unleashing a deadly virus on the rest of us. Hey, maybe I need to send this idea to Hollywood!)\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"I have been reading a book called \"Regenesis\" where in one part the authors propose a way to re-engineer the human race so all people are resistant to all viruses, known and unknown. This will theoretically be possible in the next few decades (or even sooner) and, if done right, is predicted to make us resistant for a very long time and possibly even forever.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1363979854,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":37,"wordCount":1742},"headData":{"title":"Engineering a Virus-Free Future | KQED","description":"I have been reading a book called "Regenesis" where in one part the authors propose a way to re-engineer the human race so all people are resistant to all viruses, known and unknown. This will theoretically be possible in the next few decades (or even sooner) and, if done right, is predicted to make us resistant for a very long time and possibly even forever.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"50649 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=50649","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/","disqusTitle":"Engineering a Virus-Free Future","path":"/quest/50649/engineering-a-virus-free-future","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50657\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/hivdocking/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50657\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg\" alt=\"One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"630\" height=\"361\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50657\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I have been reading a book called \u003ca href=\"http://www.amazon.com/Regenesis-Synthetic-Biology-Reinvent-Ourselves/dp/0465021751/ref=tmm_hrd_title_popover?ie=UTF8&qid=1362680681&sr=8-1\">Regenesis \u003c/a>where in one part the authors propose a way to re-engineer the human race so all people are resistant to all viruses, known and unknown. This will theoretically be possible in the next few decades (or even sooner) and, if done right, is predicted to make us resistant for a very long time and possibly even forever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as you might guess, something this radical does not come without risks. There are many possible health risks involved in a major reshaping of human DNA that essentially divorces us from the nature around us. And there are many ethical dilemmas in its implementation as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The benefits of a virus-free world are obvious. But it is an open question whether the risks outweigh these benefits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science of Complete Viral Resistance\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The science behind all of this is plausible although it will definitely be a daunting technological challenge. The basic idea it is to change our operating system—we will be Macs in a PC world and so be immune to those pesky PC viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nature’s operating system is the genetic code. At its simplest the code is made up of 64, three letter words called codons. This is the language our genes are written in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Viruses are able to infect our cells and make us sick because they use the same operating system. Basically a virus enters a cell and gives it a series of commands via the genetic code to make new viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we engineer our cells to speak a different language, then the viral instructions will be meaningless. Our cell will ignore the virus and eventually clear it out of our system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Re-engineering a code that has been around for a billion years might sound hard, but one of its properties makes it doable. Many of those 64 words mean pretty much the same thing. Our genetic code has a lot of synonyms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50664\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticcodesm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50664\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/geneticCodeSM.gif\" alt=\"A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\" width=\"250\" height=\"220\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50664\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The idea would be to change the meaning of a few of the synonyms. What we’d do is pick a codon, maybe TAG, and change all of the TAGs in our genes to its synonyms, TGA and TAA. Then we’d make TAG code for something else.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now when a virus enters the cell, its instructions to the cell are gibberish. Whenever it gives cells an instruction with TAG somewhere in it, the cell misreads it and so can’t do as it is told. The cell can then calmly ignore the virus and go about its business. (Click \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/viral-resistance\">here \u003c/a>to learn more about the science behind this.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Making the resistance more or less permanent requires changing more than one synonym. Viruses are small and mutate like crazy so we have to make it so the virus requires at least ten and probably many more simultaneous mutations to become resistant. The only way to do this is if we make all the changes in one fell swoop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This all sounds like some Hollywood \"B movie\" but \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/15/redesigning-life/\">scientists are very close\u003c/a> to testing this theory out in \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em>, a common lab bacterium. Scientists have made the appropriate changes and are stitching together the DNA as we speak. Soon we should know if this strain of \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em> is immune to the phages that plague it. (Phages are what viruses that attack bacteria are called.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this works in bacteria, then it might work in people too. But it isn’t a for sure thing. We are more complicated than a bacterium and the genetic code is more complicated than it first appears.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big challenge that has important implications is that we can’t make the necessary changes a bit at a time. If we do that, viruses will mutate along with us and keep up. We need to make all the tens of thousands of changes all at once. This is where the trouble can start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Technical Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are at least two sets of technical risks associated with doing something like this. The first just has to do with how often we make a mistake while changing tens of thousands of our DNA letters. No matter how good we get, there will always be a chance that we make a mistake. And since these changes are in genes, some of the mistakes could be really bad for our health. I am not sure we can ever be careful enough to not introduce a few errors here and there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The second big risk is that we do not fully understand how our DNA works. What if there are very small genes we don’t know about that use the synonym that we have changed? The consequences could be severe if that “genelet” plays an important role in the cell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another problem in that the synonyms may not be as alike as we think. We’ve known for a while that not all synonymous codons are created equal. For example, sometimes when we try to optimize a gene by selecting what we think are better codons, the gene stops working. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50677\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticengineering/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50677\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg\" alt=\"We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50677\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg 250w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 250px) 100vw, 250px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.yeastgenome.org/the-rhythm-of-ribosomes\">study \u003c/a>just out in yeast confirms that some of the specific codons in a gene are there for a reason—not all synonymous codons are used in the same way in the cell. It looks like some words are preferred at certain parts of a gene. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means we may not be able to simply swap one codon out for another in a gene. And since all the genes are competing for a limited amount of machinery using specific codons, we don’t really know what effect eliminating all these codons will have on all 20,000 or 25,000 of our genes. We may slow things down as the parts of the cell all compete for these limited resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What makes each of these problems worse is that we will need to make all the changes at once in a cell to keep viruses from catching up to us. We will be able to test a lot beforehand, but it may not be enough. We may miss something and that would be unacceptable here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, we are talking about people here not bacteria, yeast or daisies. Mistakes mean a dead baby or one with disabilities. I am not sure there will ever be enough testing to make this safe enough to be worthwhile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Implementation Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you’ve seen, there are definitely health risks associated with doing this (I’m sure I haven’t thought of them all). But the ethical risks might be worse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These changes can’t be made in any of us alive today. They would have to be made by inserting the changed DNA into a stem cell and coaxing that stem cell into becoming an embryo. This means that instead of changing the current human race, we’d be creating a new one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An immediate problem is how we choose who gets to be virus-resistant. And scarily still, whose DNA gets to live on. So the first step will be figuring out who gets to have virus-free children and how we “choose” what DNA that child will have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way would be to make it so everyone who wants a child gets the option of having the child be virus-resistant. Maybe parents fertilize an egg the old fashioned way, the embryo’s DNA is sequenced and the DNA made matches this embryo’s. This makes me a little squeamish and is a strange gray area. We have eliminated the embryo but essentially cloned it…is the child truly identical?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50683\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 150px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/atcgpeople-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50683\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/atcgPeople.jpg\" alt=\"This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\" width=\"150\" height=\"184\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50683\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another option would be to use a computer to generate a mix of the parents’ DNA and then to make that DNA and grow it into a child. This is scary as you know people will be tempted to choose the DNA rather than letting it come down to chance. We’ll definitely end up with a very different human race in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Both of these would be pretty expensive dollar-wise but are better than an option where a chosen few get to have virus-free kids. How would that decision be made and who gets to make it? (Hint: The poor would be poorly represented.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whatever option we choose, there will still be another key issue. Engineered humans and natural humans won’t be able to have kids together. This opens up a whole can of worms if the two groups are around together for any length of time. And chances are they will (unless we outlaw having kids the old fashioned way). We will have artificially speciated the human race!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no way that comes out well. Most likely we’ll split into a group of haves and have nots decided by genetics. The engineered humans will have kids together and the natural humans will too. Occasionally a natural human could make enough money to have an engineered child but for the most part they’d be separated. I’ll let you paint that dystopic future in your head!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are a few of the ethical dilemmas I can think of off the top of my head. I am sure there are many more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This may all seem like a problem for Captain Kirk, but it is closer than you might think. It is really important to start talking about this stuff now so we can think out how we are going to deal with these sorts of decisions in coming decades. Before we know it, the need to decide will be upon us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>(And I didn’t even bring up the scary possibility of some Bond villain creating a virus-resistant army and then unleashing a deadly virus on the rest of us. Hey, maybe I need to send this idea to Hollywood!)\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/50649/engineering-a-virus-free-future","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_9950","quest_13202","quest_11827","quest_2861","quest_3319","quest_3082"],"featImg":"quest_50657","label":"quest"},"quest_49602":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_49602","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"49602","score":null,"sort":[1361808015000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"genetic-sleuthing","title":"Genetic Sleuthing, Or How To Catch The Right Identical Twin Criminal ","publishDate":1361808015,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49603\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\" alt='\"Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg' width=\"630\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49603\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The police in Marseille France are \u003ca href=\"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21401200\">struggling to solve a sexual assault case\u003c/a>. They have solid video evidence and have even matched DNA from the crime scene with two suspects but they still can’t figure it out. See, the problem is that the suspects are identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Identical twins look pretty similar so unless the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15107687/ns/dateline_nbc-crime_reports/#.URvjYR37Ls4\">police get lucky\u003c/a> like they did in Boston, video evidence can’t usually be used to tell them apart. And identical twins share the same DNA so conventional DNA tests can’t be used either. The police are in a real pickle. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Except that they don’t have to be. As the police are aware, there are less conventional tests that can find the few differences between the DNA of identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>None of our DNA is exactly the same as when we were a fertilized egg, floating towards our mother’s womb. Our life experiences change our DNA in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, there are chemical marks on our DNA that help to control which genes should be turned on where and to what level. These epigenetic marks are added and removed over our life time in response to our specific set of experiences. This is true for all of us including identical twins. In fact, scientists have actually looked at \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=identical-twins-exhibit-d\">these epigenetic markers in identical twins\u003c/a> and have found them to be different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another way our DNA can change is through mutation. DNA is not as stable as you might think and each of our DNAs is building up small changes over our lifetime. Sometimes these mutations can lead to trouble (for example, \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/cancer-origins\">almost all cases of cancer\u003c/a> come from DNA mutations) but most are harmless. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These mutations are random events that can happen in a couple of different ways. Sometimes something in the environment like cigarette smoke or the ultraviolet light from the sun damages the DNA. Other times our cells make a mistake when they copy their DNA and that mistake is passed on to the next generation of cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In both cases, the mutations are going to be specific to a person. The odds are definitely against two different cells making a mistake in the same place in each of their DNAs. Same thing with ultraviolet light targeting the exact same two T’s in two different people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49607\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/25/genetic-sleuthing/mutateddna/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49607\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/MutatedDNA.gif\" alt=\"A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\" width=\"225\" height=\"151\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49607\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So there are unique DNA differences between identical twins that scientists can use to tell them apart. Why aren’t the police using these differences to catch their criminal? Because the cost is too high.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The police are saying that it would cost one million euros to do the required testing. No matter how hard I try, I can’t seem to wrap my head around that price tag.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I asked around and right now it costs between $5000 and $10,000 U.S. dollars to sequence an entire genome here in California. I know things are more expensive in Europe but unless the euro has crashed big time in the last few weeks, I can’t get to a million euros.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They would need to sequence the DNA of both twins and the DNA from each of the six crime scenes. Let’s call that $100,000 U.S. Do they really need an extra $900,000 to analyze the data?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now to be fair, getting this information isn’t that easy. The mutations I was talking about happen in different places in different cells. A person may get a DNA change in his skin cell different from one in his blood or cheek cell. So the police need to be very careful about which tissues they choose to test.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, since these are sexual assaults there may have been semen from the rapist at some of the crime scenes. Sperm cells have a pretty high rate of mutation because men are constantly making new sperm. In fact, these mutations are why the children of older men are at \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/older-dads%E2%80%99-kids-higher-risk-genetic-disease\">a higher risk for certain diseases\u003c/a>. So sperm would be an ideal source for looking at the whole genome. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But sperm wouldn’t be as ideal for looking at epigenetic changes. Before DNA is packaged into sperm, most of the epigenetic markers are wiped clean. Not all of them (which is one way environmental effects can be \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/original_news/news134\">passed from one generation to the next\u003c/a>), but enough so that this may not be the best approach with sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The epigenetic approach would be better for other tissues. It is more expensive but scientists need to look at less DNA so the price pretty much evens out in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bottom line is that there are tests available to distinguish between the twins and that the tests probably wouldn’t cost one million euros. Still, even if the tests are “only” 100,000 euros, that is still a lot of money. It is up to society and the government whether or not catching one (or two) criminals is worth this cost.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"There are unique DNA differences between identical twins that scientists can use to tell them apart. Why isn't law enforcement using these differences to catch their criminal? Because the cost is too high.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1362707229,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":19,"wordCount":881},"headData":{"title":"Genetic Sleuthing, Or How To Catch The Right Identical Twin Criminal | KQED","description":"There are unique DNA differences between identical twins that scientists can use to tell them apart. Why isn't law enforcement using these differences to catch their criminal? Because the cost is too high.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"49602 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=49602","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/25/genetic-sleuthing/","disqusTitle":"Genetic Sleuthing, Or How To Catch The Right Identical Twin Criminal ","path":"/quest/49602/genetic-sleuthing","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49603\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\" alt='\"Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg' width=\"630\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49603\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The police in Marseille France are \u003ca href=\"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21401200\">struggling to solve a sexual assault case\u003c/a>. They have solid video evidence and have even matched DNA from the crime scene with two suspects but they still can’t figure it out. See, the problem is that the suspects are identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Identical twins look pretty similar so unless the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15107687/ns/dateline_nbc-crime_reports/#.URvjYR37Ls4\">police get lucky\u003c/a> like they did in Boston, video evidence can’t usually be used to tell them apart. And identical twins share the same DNA so conventional DNA tests can’t be used either. The police are in a real pickle. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Except that they don’t have to be. As the police are aware, there are less conventional tests that can find the few differences between the DNA of identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>None of our DNA is exactly the same as when we were a fertilized egg, floating towards our mother’s womb. Our life experiences change our DNA in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, there are chemical marks on our DNA that help to control which genes should be turned on where and to what level. These epigenetic marks are added and removed over our life time in response to our specific set of experiences. This is true for all of us including identical twins. In fact, scientists have actually looked at \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=identical-twins-exhibit-d\">these epigenetic markers in identical twins\u003c/a> and have found them to be different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another way our DNA can change is through mutation. DNA is not as stable as you might think and each of our DNAs is building up small changes over our lifetime. Sometimes these mutations can lead to trouble (for example, \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/cancer-origins\">almost all cases of cancer\u003c/a> come from DNA mutations) but most are harmless. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These mutations are random events that can happen in a couple of different ways. Sometimes something in the environment like cigarette smoke or the ultraviolet light from the sun damages the DNA. Other times our cells make a mistake when they copy their DNA and that mistake is passed on to the next generation of cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In both cases, the mutations are going to be specific to a person. The odds are definitely against two different cells making a mistake in the same place in each of their DNAs. Same thing with ultraviolet light targeting the exact same two T’s in two different people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49607\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/25/genetic-sleuthing/mutateddna/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49607\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/MutatedDNA.gif\" alt=\"A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\" width=\"225\" height=\"151\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49607\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So there are unique DNA differences between identical twins that scientists can use to tell them apart. Why aren’t the police using these differences to catch their criminal? Because the cost is too high.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The police are saying that it would cost one million euros to do the required testing. No matter how hard I try, I can’t seem to wrap my head around that price tag.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I asked around and right now it costs between $5000 and $10,000 U.S. dollars to sequence an entire genome here in California. I know things are more expensive in Europe but unless the euro has crashed big time in the last few weeks, I can’t get to a million euros.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They would need to sequence the DNA of both twins and the DNA from each of the six crime scenes. Let’s call that $100,000 U.S. Do they really need an extra $900,000 to analyze the data?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now to be fair, getting this information isn’t that easy. The mutations I was talking about happen in different places in different cells. A person may get a DNA change in his skin cell different from one in his blood or cheek cell. So the police need to be very careful about which tissues they choose to test.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, since these are sexual assaults there may have been semen from the rapist at some of the crime scenes. Sperm cells have a pretty high rate of mutation because men are constantly making new sperm. In fact, these mutations are why the children of older men are at \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/older-dads%E2%80%99-kids-higher-risk-genetic-disease\">a higher risk for certain diseases\u003c/a>. So sperm would be an ideal source for looking at the whole genome. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But sperm wouldn’t be as ideal for looking at epigenetic changes. Before DNA is packaged into sperm, most of the epigenetic markers are wiped clean. Not all of them (which is one way environmental effects can be \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/original_news/news134\">passed from one generation to the next\u003c/a>), but enough so that this may not be the best approach with sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The epigenetic approach would be better for other tissues. It is more expensive but scientists need to look at less DNA so the price pretty much evens out in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bottom line is that there are tests available to distinguish between the twins and that the tests probably wouldn’t cost one million euros. Still, even if the tests are “only” 100,000 euros, that is still a lot of money. It is up to society and the government whether or not catching one (or two) criminals is worth this cost.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/49602/genetic-sleuthing","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_738","quest_1129","quest_9734","quest_13202","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_49997","label":"quest"},"quest_48949":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_48949","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"48949","score":null,"sort":[1359388824000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"comments-do-matter-so-get-talking","title":"Comments Do Matter (So Get Talking!)","publishDate":1359388824,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48958\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/28/comments-do-matter-so-get-talking/goldenrice2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48958\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/GoldenRice2.jpg\" alt=\"A single comment helped turn an opponent of this GM rice into a proponent. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"640\" height=\"356\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48958\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/GoldenRice2.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/GoldenRice2-400x223.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A single comment helped turn an opponent of this GM rice into a proponent. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Back in December I wrote a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/03/wanted-scientist-comments/\">blog post\u003c/a> asking scientists to comment online more often. I had noticed that some commenters were getting away with comments that were scientifically wrong (“vaccines don’t prevent illness”) and I was worried that if these comments remained unchallenged, readers would conclude that these scientifically inaccurate statements were actually true. Or at the very least that there was some debate on the question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A number of scientists got back to me on why they didn’t bother to comment and one of the biggest reasons I heard was that they didn’t think their comments would matter. They felt their comment would be one of many that got lost in the fury of the comments section. As one put it, “There would be too little return on his investment.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A recent case shows that a well-timed comment can radically change someone’s viewpoint. A journalist named Mark Lynas has been a harsh critic of genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) from the get go. He regularly argues against GM foods in the press and has had a huge impact on the debate about the safety of these crops.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, after much soul-searching and scientific investigation brought on by a reader’s comment on \u003ca href=\"http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/19/gmcrops.food\">one of his stories\u003c/a> in the Guardian, he is no longer opposed to GM foods. In fact, he has become pro-GMO!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It might seem hard to believe, but this is what Lynas himself is claiming. Here is the comment that caused the radical rethink:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> “One does not fight the corporate misdeeds of the automotive industry, for instance, by demanding that the wheel must be banned.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48971\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/28/comments-do-matter-so-get-talking/fossilblogcomment/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48971\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/FossilBlogComment.jpg\" alt=\"This comment was the push Lynas needed to investigate GMO's more thoroughly which resulted in a complete about face on his views.\" width=\"250\" height=\"294\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48971\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This comment was the push Lynas needed to investigate GMO's more thoroughly which resulted in a complete about face on his views.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This was one snippet towards the end of a longish, ~530 word comment, but it got Lynas to thinking about why he was opposed to GM foods. As he thought on it, he realized it wasn’t because of any scientific evidence. No, it had more to do with a gut response against a big, evil, American corporation tinkering with the food supply. Or, in his own words: \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>“When I first heard about Monsanto’s GM soya [soybeans] I knew exactly what I thought. Here was a big American corporation with a nasty track record, putting something new and experimental into our food without telling us. Mixing genes between species seemed to be about as unnatural as you can get – here was humankind acquiring too much technological power; something was bound to go horribly wrong. These genes would spread like some kind of living pollution. It was the stuff of nightmares.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/19/gmcrops.food#start-of-comments\">comment \u003c/a>on his Guardian article made him realize that this was not a reasonable foundation on which to base his opposition to GM foods. It prompted him, for the first time, to take a deeper look into the science of GMO’s. He quickly realized that his reasons for opposing GM foods were not based in any fact. His list is as follows:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>“I’d assumed that it would increase the use of chemicals. It turned out that pest-resistant cotton and maize needed less insecticide. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that GM benefited only the big companies. It turned out that billions of dollars of benefits were accruing to farmers needing fewer inputs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that Terminator Technology [which was meant to make plants produce sterile, unusable seeds] was robbing farmers of the right to save seed. It turned out that hybrids did that long ago, and that Terminator never happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that no one wanted GM. Actually what happened was that Bt cotton [which grows its own pesticide to fight bollworm and other pests] was pirated into India and Roundup Ready soya into Brazil because farmers were so eager to use them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that GM was dangerous. It turned out that it was safer and more precise than conventional breeding using mutagenesis for example; GM just moves a couple of genes, whereas conventional breeding mucks about with the entire genome in a trial and error way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what about mixing genes between unrelated species? The fish and the tomato? Turns out viruses do that all the time, as do plants and insects and even us – it’s called gene flow.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you can see, once he did the legwork to understand the science that had been done, he realized that his reasons for opposing GMO’s held no water. And in fact, as an environmentalist, he realized further that he should be supporting GM foods as a way to increase yield and so decrease the amount of land that needed to be cultivated. All from a single comment!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course a big question is why he changed his mind when he did. After all, he had undoubtedly received similar comments to his other stories over the years. The answer lies in his newest environmental concern--global warming.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike the debate over GMO’s, science is on the side of the environmentalists in the global warming debate. As Lynas wrote and argued about global warming, he became frustrated at commenters who ignored the science behind global warming. This prompted him to learn how to read and understand the scientific literature which in turn prompted him into investigating the studies that had been done on GMO’s. It was then that he realized that his opposition to GMO’s was not factually based.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the comment wasn’t the whole story behind his changed position. But it did come right when he was primed and ready to explore the science further. It was the nudge that pushed him into his new stance on GMO’s.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Back in December I wrote a blog post asking scientists to comment online more often.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1360963940,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":21,"wordCount":1013},"headData":{"title":"Comments Do Matter (So Get Talking!) | KQED","description":"Back in December I wrote a blog post asking scientists to comment online more often.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"48949 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=48949","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/28/comments-do-matter-so-get-talking/","disqusTitle":"Comments Do Matter (So Get Talking!)","path":"/quest/48949/comments-do-matter-so-get-talking","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48958\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/28/comments-do-matter-so-get-talking/goldenrice2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48958\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/GoldenRice2.jpg\" alt=\"A single comment helped turn an opponent of this GM rice into a proponent. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"640\" height=\"356\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48958\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/GoldenRice2.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/GoldenRice2-400x223.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A single comment helped turn an opponent of this GM rice into a proponent. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Back in December I wrote a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/03/wanted-scientist-comments/\">blog post\u003c/a> asking scientists to comment online more often. I had noticed that some commenters were getting away with comments that were scientifically wrong (“vaccines don’t prevent illness”) and I was worried that if these comments remained unchallenged, readers would conclude that these scientifically inaccurate statements were actually true. Or at the very least that there was some debate on the question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A number of scientists got back to me on why they didn’t bother to comment and one of the biggest reasons I heard was that they didn’t think their comments would matter. They felt their comment would be one of many that got lost in the fury of the comments section. As one put it, “There would be too little return on his investment.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A recent case shows that a well-timed comment can radically change someone’s viewpoint. A journalist named Mark Lynas has been a harsh critic of genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) from the get go. He regularly argues against GM foods in the press and has had a huge impact on the debate about the safety of these crops.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, after much soul-searching and scientific investigation brought on by a reader’s comment on \u003ca href=\"http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/19/gmcrops.food\">one of his stories\u003c/a> in the Guardian, he is no longer opposed to GM foods. In fact, he has become pro-GMO!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It might seem hard to believe, but this is what Lynas himself is claiming. Here is the comment that caused the radical rethink:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> “One does not fight the corporate misdeeds of the automotive industry, for instance, by demanding that the wheel must be banned.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48971\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/28/comments-do-matter-so-get-talking/fossilblogcomment/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48971\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/FossilBlogComment.jpg\" alt=\"This comment was the push Lynas needed to investigate GMO's more thoroughly which resulted in a complete about face on his views.\" width=\"250\" height=\"294\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48971\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This comment was the push Lynas needed to investigate GMO's more thoroughly which resulted in a complete about face on his views.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This was one snippet towards the end of a longish, ~530 word comment, but it got Lynas to thinking about why he was opposed to GM foods. As he thought on it, he realized it wasn’t because of any scientific evidence. No, it had more to do with a gut response against a big, evil, American corporation tinkering with the food supply. Or, in his own words: \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>“When I first heard about Monsanto’s GM soya [soybeans] I knew exactly what I thought. Here was a big American corporation with a nasty track record, putting something new and experimental into our food without telling us. Mixing genes between species seemed to be about as unnatural as you can get – here was humankind acquiring too much technological power; something was bound to go horribly wrong. These genes would spread like some kind of living pollution. It was the stuff of nightmares.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/19/gmcrops.food#start-of-comments\">comment \u003c/a>on his Guardian article made him realize that this was not a reasonable foundation on which to base his opposition to GM foods. It prompted him, for the first time, to take a deeper look into the science of GMO’s. He quickly realized that his reasons for opposing GM foods were not based in any fact. His list is as follows:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>“I’d assumed that it would increase the use of chemicals. It turned out that pest-resistant cotton and maize needed less insecticide. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that GM benefited only the big companies. It turned out that billions of dollars of benefits were accruing to farmers needing fewer inputs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that Terminator Technology [which was meant to make plants produce sterile, unusable seeds] was robbing farmers of the right to save seed. It turned out that hybrids did that long ago, and that Terminator never happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that no one wanted GM. Actually what happened was that Bt cotton [which grows its own pesticide to fight bollworm and other pests] was pirated into India and Roundup Ready soya into Brazil because farmers were so eager to use them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d assumed that GM was dangerous. It turned out that it was safer and more precise than conventional breeding using mutagenesis for example; GM just moves a couple of genes, whereas conventional breeding mucks about with the entire genome in a trial and error way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what about mixing genes between unrelated species? The fish and the tomato? Turns out viruses do that all the time, as do plants and insects and even us – it’s called gene flow.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you can see, once he did the legwork to understand the science that had been done, he realized that his reasons for opposing GMO’s held no water. And in fact, as an environmentalist, he realized further that he should be supporting GM foods as a way to increase yield and so decrease the amount of land that needed to be cultivated. All from a single comment!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course a big question is why he changed his mind when he did. After all, he had undoubtedly received similar comments to his other stories over the years. The answer lies in his newest environmental concern--global warming.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike the debate over GMO’s, science is on the side of the environmentalists in the global warming debate. As Lynas wrote and argued about global warming, he became frustrated at commenters who ignored the science behind global warming. This prompted him to learn how to read and understand the scientific literature which in turn prompted him into investigating the studies that had been done on GMO’s. It was then that he realized that his opposition to GMO’s was not factually based.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the comment wasn’t the whole story behind his changed position. But it did come right when he was primed and ready to explore the science further. It was the nudge that pushed him into his new stance on GMO’s.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/48949/comments-do-matter-so-get-talking","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_9","quest_12"],"tags":["quest_11634","quest_1196","quest_1228","quest_1238","quest_13202","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_48958","label":"quest"},"quest_48545":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_48545","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"48545","score":null,"sort":[1358179223000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"pregnancy-and-paternity-new-fetal-dna-testing","title":"Pregnancy and Paternity: New Fetal DNA Testing","publishDate":1358179223,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48666\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 635px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/14/pregnancy-and-paternity-new-fetal-dna-testing/pregnantwomangraffiti/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48666\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/PregnantWomanGraffiti.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"PregnantWomanGraffiti\" width=\"635\" height=\"369\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48666\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/PregnantWomanGraffiti.jpg 635w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/PregnantWomanGraffiti-400x232.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 635px) 100vw, 635px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Prenatal paternity tests will actually decrease the number of abortions. Image courtesy of Petteri Sulonen from Helsinki, Finland via Wikimedia Commons. \u003ccite>(Courtesy of Petteri Sulonen from Helsinki, Finland via Wikimedia Commons.)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Imagine you are a woman in a committed relationship. The worst happens and you are raped and become pregnant. What are your options?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until recently, there was no reliable and safe way to determine paternity in the first trimester. This meant that many women chose to terminate their pregnancy without knowing who the child’s father was. Obviously this is not ideal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the woman could determine paternity, she could use that information to help in her decision on whether to terminate the pregnancy. Undoubtedly this would lead to fewer abortions as more women choose to carry their partner’s child to term.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tricky part of a prenatal paternity test is obviously getting a hold of fetal DNA. One method is amniocentesis. In this procedure, a needle is inserted into the amniotic sac and fluid is withdrawn. This fluid contains a lot of fetal DNA but getting it is not only invasive, it is also normally done somewhere between the 15th and 18th week of pregnancy. This is too late for many women.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Other methods take advantage of the fact that there is a bit of fetal DNA floating around in the plasma of mom’s blood. These tests have the advantage that they are noninvasive and can be done much earlier in pregnancy…sometimes as early as 8 weeks. The disadvantage of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827893.200-the-danger-of-unreliable-paternity-tests.html\">early versions of the test\u003c/a> was that they weren’t always as accurate as we’d like.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are anecdotal cases out there of women losing their partner’s child because they thought the child was the result of the rapist and keeping the rapist’s child because they thought the child was their partner’s. This is obviously unacceptable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently a couple of new tests have come on line that appear to be much more accurate. Both use the fetal DNA found in mom’s blood but use novel strategies to improve accuracy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists at one \u003ca href=\"http://www.ravgen.com/index.php?page=prenatal-dna-paternity-test-2\">testing company\u003c/a> present results in a recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc1113044\">article \u003c/a>in the New England Journal of Medicine to back up their claims of accuracy. They set up an experiment where they had the mother’s, father’s, and an unrelated man’s DNA along with DNA from the mother’s blood plasma. This was a blind experiment in that the scientists did not know which of the two tubes containing the men’s DNA was from the father. They were able to correctly pick the father in 30 out of 30 cases. They claim the odds of this happening by chance are less than one out of a billion. (For those interested, the test is available \u003ca href=\"http://prenatal.ptclabs.com/\">here\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What was their secret? Well, as I talk about \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/prenatal-paternity-tests\">here\u003c/a>, the key difference is that they focus on small bits of DNA that could have only have come from the dad. Any DNA they find in mom’s blood that doesn’t match hers had to come from the fetus. This eliminates any issues of contaminating DNA from mom. If all of this DNA matches a prospective father’s, then he is most likely the dad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This company has competition from another \u003ca href=\"http://natera.com/non-invasive-prenatal-paternity-test.html\">testing company\u003c/a> that is offering another high-powered test using fetal DNA found in mom’s blood. I’ve talked about the science behind this sort of test recently right \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/23/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing/\">here \u003c/a>at QUEST. There isn’t a New England Journal article that focuses on their prenatal test per se, but they did manage to sequence the entire genome of a fetus so they are probably up to the task!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though it might seem counterintuitive, these tests will almost certainly decrease the number of abortions. And not only in cases of rape. These tests will also lead to more women keeping their children in cases of incest and even in some cases where a child might be conceived because of an extramarital affair.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Imagine you are a woman in a committed relationship. The worst happens and you are raped and become pregnant. What are your options?","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1442783343,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":13,"wordCount":696},"headData":{"title":"Pregnancy and Paternity: New Fetal DNA Testing | KQED","description":"Imagine you are a woman in a committed relationship. The worst happens and you are raped and become pregnant. What are your options?","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"48545 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=48545","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/14/pregnancy-and-paternity-new-fetal-dna-testing/","disqusTitle":"Pregnancy and Paternity: New Fetal DNA Testing","source":"Health","sourceUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/category/health/","path":"/quest/48545/pregnancy-and-paternity-new-fetal-dna-testing","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48666\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 635px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/14/pregnancy-and-paternity-new-fetal-dna-testing/pregnantwomangraffiti/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48666\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/PregnantWomanGraffiti.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"PregnantWomanGraffiti\" width=\"635\" height=\"369\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48666\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/PregnantWomanGraffiti.jpg 635w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/01/PregnantWomanGraffiti-400x232.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 635px) 100vw, 635px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Prenatal paternity tests will actually decrease the number of abortions. Image courtesy of Petteri Sulonen from Helsinki, Finland via Wikimedia Commons. \u003ccite>(Courtesy of Petteri Sulonen from Helsinki, Finland via Wikimedia Commons.)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Imagine you are a woman in a committed relationship. The worst happens and you are raped and become pregnant. What are your options?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until recently, there was no reliable and safe way to determine paternity in the first trimester. This meant that many women chose to terminate their pregnancy without knowing who the child’s father was. Obviously this is not ideal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the woman could determine paternity, she could use that information to help in her decision on whether to terminate the pregnancy. Undoubtedly this would lead to fewer abortions as more women choose to carry their partner’s child to term.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tricky part of a prenatal paternity test is obviously getting a hold of fetal DNA. One method is amniocentesis. In this procedure, a needle is inserted into the amniotic sac and fluid is withdrawn. This fluid contains a lot of fetal DNA but getting it is not only invasive, it is also normally done somewhere between the 15th and 18th week of pregnancy. This is too late for many women.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Other methods take advantage of the fact that there is a bit of fetal DNA floating around in the plasma of mom’s blood. These tests have the advantage that they are noninvasive and can be done much earlier in pregnancy…sometimes as early as 8 weeks. The disadvantage of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827893.200-the-danger-of-unreliable-paternity-tests.html\">early versions of the test\u003c/a> was that they weren’t always as accurate as we’d like.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are anecdotal cases out there of women losing their partner’s child because they thought the child was the result of the rapist and keeping the rapist’s child because they thought the child was their partner’s. This is obviously unacceptable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently a couple of new tests have come on line that appear to be much more accurate. Both use the fetal DNA found in mom’s blood but use novel strategies to improve accuracy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists at one \u003ca href=\"http://www.ravgen.com/index.php?page=prenatal-dna-paternity-test-2\">testing company\u003c/a> present results in a recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc1113044\">article \u003c/a>in the New England Journal of Medicine to back up their claims of accuracy. They set up an experiment where they had the mother’s, father’s, and an unrelated man’s DNA along with DNA from the mother’s blood plasma. This was a blind experiment in that the scientists did not know which of the two tubes containing the men’s DNA was from the father. They were able to correctly pick the father in 30 out of 30 cases. They claim the odds of this happening by chance are less than one out of a billion. (For those interested, the test is available \u003ca href=\"http://prenatal.ptclabs.com/\">here\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What was their secret? Well, as I talk about \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/prenatal-paternity-tests\">here\u003c/a>, the key difference is that they focus on small bits of DNA that could have only have come from the dad. Any DNA they find in mom’s blood that doesn’t match hers had to come from the fetus. This eliminates any issues of contaminating DNA from mom. If all of this DNA matches a prospective father’s, then he is most likely the dad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This company has competition from another \u003ca href=\"http://natera.com/non-invasive-prenatal-paternity-test.html\">testing company\u003c/a> that is offering another high-powered test using fetal DNA found in mom’s blood. I’ve talked about the science behind this sort of test recently right \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/23/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing/\">here \u003c/a>at QUEST. There isn’t a New England Journal article that focuses on their prenatal test per se, but they did manage to sequence the entire genome of a fetus so they are probably up to the task!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though it might seem counterintuitive, these tests will almost certainly decrease the number of abortions. And not only in cases of rape. These tests will also lead to more women keeping their children in cases of incest and even in some cases where a child might be conceived because of an extramarital affair.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/48545/pregnancy-and-paternity-new-fetal-dna-testing","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_12"],"tags":["quest_11680","quest_146","quest_2282","quest_11679","quest_13","quest_11681","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_48666","label":"source_quest_48545"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. 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But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/American-Suburb-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"13"},"link":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/American-Suburb-p1086805/","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"}},"baycurious":{"id":"baycurious","title":"Bay Curious","tagline":"Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time","info":"KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. 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