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Follow him on \u003ca href=\"http://www.twitter.com/clasticdetritus\">Twitter\u003c/a>.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/17c56b6efae79164ca77ee5cb5021bb1?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Brian Romans | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/17c56b6efae79164ca77ee5cb5021bb1?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/17c56b6efae79164ca77ee5cb5021bb1?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/brian-romans"},"jennifer-skene":{"type":"authors","id":"10200","meta":{"index":"authors_1591205172","id":"10200","found":true},"name":"Jennifer Skene","firstName":"Jennifer","lastName":"Skene","slug":"jennifer-skene","email":"jen@skene.org","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"Jennifer Skene develops curriculum on climate change and ocean sciences at the Lawrence Hall of Science and teaches biology and science communication at Mills College and the University of California Berkeley. 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She has written for the Berkeley Science Review and the UC Museum of Paleontology’s Understanding Evolution and Understanding Science websites.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aef770c1852a70b094a8f4ef2c3107e6?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Jennifer Skene | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aef770c1852a70b094a8f4ef2c3107e6?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aef770c1852a70b094a8f4ef2c3107e6?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/jennifer-skene"},"eleanornelsen":{"type":"authors","id":"10441","meta":{"index":"authors_1591205172","id":"10441","found":true},"name":"Eleanor Nelsen","firstName":"Eleanor","lastName":"Nelsen","slug":"eleanornelsen","email":"erolfe@chem.wisc.edu","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"Eleanor Nelsen is a graduate student in chemistry at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. When she's not studying rhodium chemistry, Eleanor enjoys reading and writing about science. She lives in Madison with her husband Luke and their growing collection of livestock.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/351f37679ff8bd6abc6237429402139d?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"quest","roles":["coordinator","edit_published_posts","subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Eleanor Nelsen | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/351f37679ff8bd6abc6237429402139d?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/351f37679ff8bd6abc6237429402139d?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/eleanornelsen"},"abrocious":{"type":"authors","id":"10465","meta":{"index":"authors_1591205172","id":"10465","found":true},"name":"Ariana Brocious","firstName":"Ariana","lastName":"Brocious","slug":"abrocious","email":"abrocious@netnebraska.org","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"Ariana Brocious is the Reporter/Morning Host at NET Radio in Nebraska, where she covers energy, water, culture and Latino issues. A native of the Southwest and graduate of the University of Arizona, she traces her interest in the environment—and how humans interact with it—to her time living in Western Colorado, where she worked as News Director for KVNF Radio, and at High Country News magazine. In her non-working hours she enjoys getting outside, coaxing her vegetable garden along, and experimenting in the kitchen.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f9ff308f4dcc2ef1df5848ee85f8295a?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"quest","roles":["coordinator","subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Ariana Brocious | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f9ff308f4dcc2ef1df5848ee85f8295a?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f9ff308f4dcc2ef1df5848ee85f8295a?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/abrocious"}},"breakingNewsReducer":{},"campaignFinanceReducer":{},"firebase":{"requesting":{},"requested":{},"timestamps":{},"data":{},"ordered":{},"auth":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"authError":null,"profile":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"listeners":{"byId":{},"allIds":[]},"isInitializing":false,"errors":[]},"navBarReducer":{"navBarId":"home","fullView":true,"showPlayer":false},"navMenuReducer":{"menus":[{"key":"menu1","items":[{"name":"News","link":"/","type":"title"},{"name":"Politics","link":"/politics"},{"name":"Science","link":"/science"},{"name":"Education","link":"/educationnews"},{"name":"Housing","link":"/housing"},{"name":"Immigration","link":"/immigration"},{"name":"Criminal Justice","link":"/criminaljustice"},{"name":"Silicon Valley","link":"/siliconvalley"},{"name":"Forum","link":"/forum"},{"name":"The California Report","link":"/californiareport"}]},{"key":"menu2","items":[{"name":"Arts & Culture","link":"/arts","type":"title"},{"name":"Critics’ Picks","link":"/thedolist"},{"name":"Cultural Commentary","link":"/artscommentary"},{"name":"Food & Drink","link":"/food"},{"name":"Bay Area Hip-Hop","link":"/bayareahiphop"},{"name":"Rebel Girls","link":"/rebelgirls"},{"name":"Arts Video","link":"/artsvideos"}]},{"key":"menu3","items":[{"name":"Podcasts","link":"/podcasts","type":"title"},{"name":"Bay Curious","link":"/podcasts/baycurious"},{"name":"Rightnowish","link":"/podcasts/rightnowish"},{"name":"The Bay","link":"/podcasts/thebay"},{"name":"On Our Watch","link":"/podcasts/onourwatch"},{"name":"Mindshift","link":"/podcasts/mindshift"},{"name":"Consider This","link":"/podcasts/considerthis"},{"name":"Political Breakdown","link":"/podcasts/politicalbreakdown"}]},{"key":"menu4","items":[{"name":"Live Radio","link":"/radio","type":"title"},{"name":"TV","link":"/tv","type":"title"},{"name":"Events","link":"/events","type":"title"},{"name":"For Educators","link":"/education","type":"title"},{"name":"Support KQED","link":"/support","type":"title"},{"name":"About","link":"/about","type":"title"},{"name":"Help Center","link":"https://kqed-helpcenter.kqed.org/s","type":"title"}]}]},"pagesReducer":{},"postsReducer":{"stream_live":{"type":"live","id":"stream_live","audioUrl":"https://streams.kqed.org/kqedradio","title":"Live Stream","excerpt":"Live Stream information currently unavailable.","link":"/radio","featImg":"","label":{"name":"KQED Live","link":"/"}},"stream_kqedNewscast":{"type":"posts","id":"stream_kqedNewscast","audioUrl":"https://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/RDnews/newscast.mp3?_=1","title":"KQED Newscast","featImg":"","label":{"name":"88.5 FM","link":"/"}},"quest_65824":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_65824","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"65824","score":null,"sort":[1396533628000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"a-hidden-world-thrives-below-the-snow","title":"A Hidden World Thrives Below the Snow","publishDate":1396533628,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{},"content":"\u003cp>“The winter is a pretty incredible time of year,” Jonathan Pauli told me. Looking out the window of his office at Wisconsin’s stubborn crust of snow, it occurred to me that “incredible” might not be the most popular adjective, especially this year, as a harrowing winter slowly releases its grip on the United States.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://labs.russell.wisc.edu/pauli/\">P\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://labs.russell.wisc.edu/pauli/\">auli\u003c/a> and his colleague \u003ca href=\"http://labs.russell.wisc.edu/zuckerberg/\">Benjamin Zuckerberg\u003c/a> explained that winter’s thick blanket of snow,inhospitable as it looks, actually provides a safe haven for plants and animals that spend their lives in northerly latitudes. “You look at the landscape and you see a blanket of homogeneous white,” said Pauli. “You think that it makes everything simple. But what is kind of fun to think about is that complex world that lives underneath the snow.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pauli and Zuckerberg are both professors in the Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. They call the narrow band of stability that exists between snow and soil the “subnivium.” In this wintry stratum, plants can germinate and photosynthesize and animals stay active -- some, like shrews, even raise litters here. But according to the scientists’ research, the subnivium is \u003ca href=\"http://nelson.wisc.edu/news/story.php?story=1700\">endangered\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Two key features help the subnivium support its tenants: temperature stability and air pockets that give animals a little breathing room.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stable temperatures -- even low ones -- are easier than fluctuating ones for organisms to accommodate. Because water in any form takes a long time to heat up or cool down, snow is a great insulator. It traps the heat rising from the soil so that even when the air temperature plummets, the temperature at the bottom of a column of snow will hover right around freezing. Meanwhile, the heat emanating from the soil creates a rising cloud of water vapor. Those water molecules condense as they move upward, creating a band of loose, icy snow where animals can move around easily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68875\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 341px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6961131505_1bcf1e601a_o.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68875 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6961131505_1bcf1e601a_o-379x253.jpg\" alt=\"6961131505_1bcf1e601a_o\" width=\"341\" height=\"228\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Small mammals like voles depend on the subnivium's stable temperatures to survive the winter. Image by Jason Ahrns/flickr.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In this stable, humid ecosystem, spiders, woolly bear caterpillars, wood frogs, voles, shrews, lawn-killing fungi called “snow molds,” and delicate glacier lilies all thrive. As the \u003ca href=\"http://whatweknow.aaas.org/get-the-facts/\">climate changes\u003c/a>, though, they might not be thriving for much longer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But doesn’t it seem like winter would be the one time when a warming climate could be a boon for wildlife? At first blush, Pauli admitted, “it does seem paradoxical. Winter is a period of resource limitations, and if it gets warmer, that’s got to be a good thing!”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like snow cover, though, it isn’t as simple as it looks. Michael Notaro, a climate researcher at UW-Madison, explained that by the end of the century the 6- to 12-degree jump predicted for the upper Midwest will mean \u003ca href=\"http://nelson.wisc.edu/news/story.php?story=1814\">winters that are less snowy\u003c/a>. And the snow that does fall won’t be the few dry, fluffy inches at a time that create the most stable subnivium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Warm air holds more water than cold air, so when the conditions are right for precipitation, “there’s more moisture to wring out,” Notaro explained. By the middle of this century Notaro’s models predict that the Midwest will be walloped by big snowstorms that drop wet, heavy snow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The consequence will be a snowpack that fluctuates both in depth and density. And without a reliably thick blanket of snow, the subnivean temperature starts to fluctuate, tracking the temperature of the air above it. The ironic result is that warmer winters will actually leave these subnivean organisms confronting colder temperatures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68888\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 376px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6851655694_6afc9e12a7_o-e1395691023592.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-68888 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6851655694_6afc9e12a7_o-e1395691023592-376x253.jpg\" alt=\"6851655694_6afc9e12a7_o\" width=\"376\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plants like the glacier lily can avoid freezing or drying out by spending the winter in the subnivium as seeds or root stock. If the subnivium gets too shallow, these plants could be damaged by ice crystals or germinate too early in the season to survive. Image by Steve Redman/National Parks Service.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That’s a big problem. The subnivium’s inhabitants have developed very finely tuned, if occasionally bizarre, survival strategies that won’t work in new conditions. The \u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fjr3A_kfspM\">wood frog\u003c/a>, for example, survives freezing by injecting all its tissues with glucose, which acts as a kind of cellular antifreeze, and then draining all the blood from its organs until the spring thaw jump-starts the frog’s heart.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But below about 18 degrees Fahrenheit, the extra glucose can’t keep ice from invading the frog’s tissues, tearing apart its cells. Even if the temperature never dips below that critical point, freeze/thaw cycles driven by newly unstable temperatures could leave the frog too exhausted to make it though the winter. Other animals’ adaptive strategies are just as delicate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s fascinating to think about how animals make a living,” Pauli said. “I mean, it really is fascinating. We crawl into our 65-degree houses and it’s comfy and cozy, but these organisms are making a living in a hostile environment.” The subnivium has been a refuge from that hostility, but Pauli believes that climate change “might simply outstrip the ability of organisms to make a living there.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until now this problem has been largely overlooked, partly because the subnivium itself is tucked away. Zuckerberg explained that “degradation in that environment can be pretty invisible to the naked eye.” Unlike a stripped rainforest or garbage-choked river, a shallow, dense band of snow looks a lot like a thick, loose one, but only the latter fosters a healthy subnivium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Climate models predict the biggest temperature jumps during the coldest months of the year. “Most ecology labs are kind of hibernating during the winter,” Zuckerberg says. But neither Zuckerberg nor Pauli will be sleeping their days away: they’ll be out there in that incredible winter, looking for everything hidden under the snow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[contextly_auto_sidebar id=\"p0RkJkc1xwoFyAGDn6RFPOvOkOn1GBuj\"]\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Although the layer of snow that blankets much of the Northern Hemisphere every winter looks inhospitable, it’s actually a cozy refuge for many plants and animals. But as the world warms up, this safe haven is disappearing.\r\n","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1442696848,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":18,"wordCount":1008},"headData":{"title":"A Hidden World Thrives Below the Snow | KQED","description":"Although the layer of snow that blankets much of the Northern Hemisphere every winter looks inhospitable, it’s actually a cozy refuge for many plants and animals. But as the world warms up, this safe haven is disappearing.\r\n","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"65824 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=65824","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2014/04/03/a-hidden-world-thrives-below-the-snow/","disqusTitle":"A Hidden World Thrives Below the Snow","source":"Biology","sourceUrl":"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/category/biology/","path":"/quest/65824/a-hidden-world-thrives-below-the-snow","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>“The winter is a pretty incredible time of year,” Jonathan Pauli told me. Looking out the window of his office at Wisconsin’s stubborn crust of snow, it occurred to me that “incredible” might not be the most popular adjective, especially this year, as a harrowing winter slowly releases its grip on the United States.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://labs.russell.wisc.edu/pauli/\">P\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://labs.russell.wisc.edu/pauli/\">auli\u003c/a> and his colleague \u003ca href=\"http://labs.russell.wisc.edu/zuckerberg/\">Benjamin Zuckerberg\u003c/a> explained that winter’s thick blanket of snow,inhospitable as it looks, actually provides a safe haven for plants and animals that spend their lives in northerly latitudes. “You look at the landscape and you see a blanket of homogeneous white,” said Pauli. “You think that it makes everything simple. But what is kind of fun to think about is that complex world that lives underneath the snow.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pauli and Zuckerberg are both professors in the Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. They call the narrow band of stability that exists between snow and soil the “subnivium.” In this wintry stratum, plants can germinate and photosynthesize and animals stay active -- some, like shrews, even raise litters here. But according to the scientists’ research, the subnivium is \u003ca href=\"http://nelson.wisc.edu/news/story.php?story=1700\">endangered\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Two key features help the subnivium support its tenants: temperature stability and air pockets that give animals a little breathing room.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stable temperatures -- even low ones -- are easier than fluctuating ones for organisms to accommodate. Because water in any form takes a long time to heat up or cool down, snow is a great insulator. It traps the heat rising from the soil so that even when the air temperature plummets, the temperature at the bottom of a column of snow will hover right around freezing. Meanwhile, the heat emanating from the soil creates a rising cloud of water vapor. Those water molecules condense as they move upward, creating a band of loose, icy snow where animals can move around easily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68875\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 341px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6961131505_1bcf1e601a_o.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68875 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6961131505_1bcf1e601a_o-379x253.jpg\" alt=\"6961131505_1bcf1e601a_o\" width=\"341\" height=\"228\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Small mammals like voles depend on the subnivium's stable temperatures to survive the winter. Image by Jason Ahrns/flickr.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In this stable, humid ecosystem, spiders, woolly bear caterpillars, wood frogs, voles, shrews, lawn-killing fungi called “snow molds,” and delicate glacier lilies all thrive. As the \u003ca href=\"http://whatweknow.aaas.org/get-the-facts/\">climate changes\u003c/a>, though, they might not be thriving for much longer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But doesn’t it seem like winter would be the one time when a warming climate could be a boon for wildlife? At first blush, Pauli admitted, “it does seem paradoxical. Winter is a period of resource limitations, and if it gets warmer, that’s got to be a good thing!”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like snow cover, though, it isn’t as simple as it looks. Michael Notaro, a climate researcher at UW-Madison, explained that by the end of the century the 6- to 12-degree jump predicted for the upper Midwest will mean \u003ca href=\"http://nelson.wisc.edu/news/story.php?story=1814\">winters that are less snowy\u003c/a>. And the snow that does fall won’t be the few dry, fluffy inches at a time that create the most stable subnivium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Warm air holds more water than cold air, so when the conditions are right for precipitation, “there’s more moisture to wring out,” Notaro explained. By the middle of this century Notaro’s models predict that the Midwest will be walloped by big snowstorms that drop wet, heavy snow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The consequence will be a snowpack that fluctuates both in depth and density. And without a reliably thick blanket of snow, the subnivean temperature starts to fluctuate, tracking the temperature of the air above it. The ironic result is that warmer winters will actually leave these subnivean organisms confronting colder temperatures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68888\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 376px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6851655694_6afc9e12a7_o-e1395691023592.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-68888 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/6851655694_6afc9e12a7_o-e1395691023592-376x253.jpg\" alt=\"6851655694_6afc9e12a7_o\" width=\"376\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plants like the glacier lily can avoid freezing or drying out by spending the winter in the subnivium as seeds or root stock. If the subnivium gets too shallow, these plants could be damaged by ice crystals or germinate too early in the season to survive. Image by Steve Redman/National Parks Service.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That’s a big problem. The subnivium’s inhabitants have developed very finely tuned, if occasionally bizarre, survival strategies that won’t work in new conditions. The \u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fjr3A_kfspM\">wood frog\u003c/a>, for example, survives freezing by injecting all its tissues with glucose, which acts as a kind of cellular antifreeze, and then draining all the blood from its organs until the spring thaw jump-starts the frog’s heart.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But below about 18 degrees Fahrenheit, the extra glucose can’t keep ice from invading the frog’s tissues, tearing apart its cells. Even if the temperature never dips below that critical point, freeze/thaw cycles driven by newly unstable temperatures could leave the frog too exhausted to make it though the winter. Other animals’ adaptive strategies are just as delicate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s fascinating to think about how animals make a living,” Pauli said. “I mean, it really is fascinating. We crawl into our 65-degree houses and it’s comfy and cozy, but these organisms are making a living in a hostile environment.” The subnivium has been a refuge from that hostility, but Pauli believes that climate change “might simply outstrip the ability of organisms to make a living there.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until now this problem has been largely overlooked, partly because the subnivium itself is tucked away. Zuckerberg explained that “degradation in that environment can be pretty invisible to the naked eye.” Unlike a stripped rainforest or garbage-choked river, a shallow, dense band of snow looks a lot like a thick, loose one, but only the latter fosters a healthy subnivium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Climate models predict the biggest temperature jumps during the coldest months of the year. “Most ecology labs are kind of hibernating during the winter,” Zuckerberg says. But neither Zuckerberg nor Pauli will be sleeping their days away: they’ll be out there in that incredible winter, looking for everything hidden under the snow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[contextly_auto_sidebar id=\"p0RkJkc1xwoFyAGDn6RFPOvOkOn1GBuj\"]\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/65824/a-hidden-world-thrives-below-the-snow","authors":["10441"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_6","quest_9"],"tags":["quest_326","quest_621","quest_12269","quest_12355","quest_2682","quest_12769","quest_10497"],"featImg":"quest_68867","label":"source_quest_65824"},"quest_65956":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_65956","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"65956","score":null,"sort":[1394719211000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"the-science-of-measuring-snow","title":"The Science of Measuring Snow","publishDate":1394719211,"format":"audio","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{},"content":"\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/ScienceofSnowpack_031314.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of the water that flows through the West originates high up in the mountains. Each winter, as snow accumulates there, hydrologists calculate how much of the water that melts from it will end up downstream. That information is critical to towns, power plants, and irrigators who depend on the water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Near the summit of Interstate 80 in southeastern Wyoming, Matt Hoobler trudges through a scrubby open field on snowshoes, carrying a long hollow metal pipe. Reaching a marked spot near the trees, he carefully holds the metal tube perpendicular to the ground, then lets it drop through the snow, twists it, and pulls it out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68013\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68013 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/mattwalk-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Matt Hoobler snowshoes to the manual snow survey course in Wyoming. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Matt Hoobler snowshoes to the manual snow survey course in Wyoming. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Hoobler, a snow surveyor with the Wyoming State Engineer’s Office, is taking a core sample of the snowpack. The specially calibrated cylinder measures snow depth, weight, and density.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Water content at this site is 5.5 inches. That means if this snow was to melt instantaneously, there’d be 5.5 inches of water sitting in this meadow,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hoobler collects snowpack information at sites throughout Wyoming, like his colleagues in 12 other Western states, including California, Washington and Alaska. Because these sites are often remote, they can travel up to 70 miles a day by snowshoe, skis, and snowmobiles on surveys, carrying survival equipment to protect them in the event of severe weather.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The main reason we’re up here for snow survey is for river forecasting. In other words, once it all turns to water, how much water is going to exist in our rivers and our reservoirs,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68014\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68014 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/pole-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"This specially-calibrated tube measures snow depth, weight and density. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This specially-calibrated tube measures snow depth, weight and density. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The snow survey program started in the 1930s. Each year surveyors add new data to the collection, validating the record and improving accuracy. Hoobler said understanding the relationship between snowpack and water supply is critical.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Society depends on water -- whether it’s growing the crops we’re going to eat or producing hydroelectric power. Fifty to eighty percent of flows of North Platte River depend on this white stuff -- snow,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One hundred miles southwest, in the South Platte River basin, Mage Hultstrand skis through deep snow just off the highway to get to the Joe Wright SNOTEL site on the top of Cameron Pass in Colorado.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68015\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68015 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/agnes-bit_10_11-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Joe Wright SNOTEL site on Cameron Pass, in Colorado. These sites collect and transmit snowpack and climate data from all over the western U.S. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Joe Wright SNOTEL site on Cameron Pass, in Colorado. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>SNOTEL stands for “snowpack telemetry,” or remote data transmission. Hultstrand is a hydrologist with the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s snow survey program in Denver. Every year more than 700 remote stations like this one track snowpack and climate data, including snow depth and temperature, across the West.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We measure the water content of the snow here,” Hultstrand said, pointing out markers that border the snow pillow, an envelope filled with antifreeze that acts like a scale, weighing the snow and converting it to a measurement of total water content. SNOTEL data are combined with manual snow survey data, collected by people like Hoobler, and compiled into water supply forecasts. Hultstrand said those projections help water providers prepare for the season ahead, determining if they’ll have to apply restrictions in dry years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Water providers and agricultural users start paying attention early in the season to what’s going on. This is the headwater state, so this is where all of your water is coming from, with the exception of whatever precipitation is received in spring and summer,” Hultstrand said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68016\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68016 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/maggie-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Mage Hultstrand skis to the Joe Wright SNOTEL site near Cameron Pass, in Colorado. \" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mage Hultstrand skis to the Joe Wright SNOTEL site near Cameron Pass, in Colorado. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Downstream, Nebraska irrigators also rely on groundwater, which is affected by snowfall. But it takes time for that melted snow to travel through the underground aquifer and back to streams and reservoirs, which impacts central Nebraska irrigators. Tom Schwarz farms about 750 certified organic acres near Bertrand, Nebraska. In addition to row crops, he grows vegetables to supply supermarkets in Lincoln and Omaha.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwarz uses groundwater on most of his fields, but also depends on Platte River water stored in Lake McConaughy. Schwarz said he keeps an eye on snowpack but knows there’s a delay in what he and other central Nebraska irrigators will actually receive from the mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When the snow falls this year, it fills up the reservoirs in the mountains. Irrigators in the Panhandle use that water and, in turn, that water goes down into the aquifer and, hopefully, into the river and down to Lake McConaughy for use the following year,” Schwarz said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That water is controlled by the Central Nebraska Public Power and Irrigation District. Spokesman Jeff Buettner said they take that delay into account and watch snowpack and river forecasts and levels at Wyoming reservoirs when planning their water supply. But inflows to Lake McConaughy have been declining for the last decade, partly due to groundwater development and conservation measures upstream. Buettner said 2014 will be the seventh time in the last 10 years that Central Irrigation’s customers will receive less than a full supply of water. This year’s allocation will only be half of what they could expect historically.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, Buettner said water conservation and efficiency is key. Some big snowpack years would help, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back in Wyoming, Matt Hoobler reads the results of his snow survey report.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68017\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"https://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ftpref/data/water/wcs/earth/snotelwithlabels.kmz&sll=45.467836,-108.446045&sspn=5.369953,8.712158&ie=UTF8&t=h&z=4\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-68017 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/SnotelMAP-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"Snowpack in the Platte Basin is above average in several locations. The full interactive map is produced by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Snowpack in the Platte Basin is above average in several locations. Click on the image to see the full interactive map produced by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Last year at this time, we had 17 inches of snow; we have 31 this year. Last year we had 2.7 water content inches; we have 5.5 this year. And our 30-year average is 5.4, so we’re just a hair above average. Any time you can have average, that’s a great day,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So far, most of the Platte River Basin snowpack reports are above average. But since it’s still midwinter, most water providers will wait to see what the April report brings before getting too excited.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Much of the water flowing through the West starts as snowpack high up in the mountains. A complex system of remote and manual data collection helps water managers calculate how much water they'll have for the season ahead. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1443823017,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":22,"wordCount":1082},"headData":{"title":"The Science of Measuring Snow | KQED","description":"Much of the water flowing through the West starts as snowpack high up in the mountains. A complex system of remote and manual data collection helps water managers calculate how much water they'll have for the season ahead. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"65956 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=65956","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2014/03/13/the-science-of-measuring-snow/","disqusTitle":"The Science of Measuring Snow","source":"Environment","sourceUrl":"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/category/environment/","path":"/quest/65956/the-science-of-measuring-snow","audioUrl":"https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/ScienceofSnowpack_031314.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/ScienceofSnowpack_031314.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of the water that flows through the West originates high up in the mountains. Each winter, as snow accumulates there, hydrologists calculate how much of the water that melts from it will end up downstream. That information is critical to towns, power plants, and irrigators who depend on the water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Near the summit of Interstate 80 in southeastern Wyoming, Matt Hoobler trudges through a scrubby open field on snowshoes, carrying a long hollow metal pipe. Reaching a marked spot near the trees, he carefully holds the metal tube perpendicular to the ground, then lets it drop through the snow, twists it, and pulls it out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68013\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68013 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/mattwalk-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Matt Hoobler snowshoes to the manual snow survey course in Wyoming. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Matt Hoobler snowshoes to the manual snow survey course in Wyoming. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Hoobler, a snow surveyor with the Wyoming State Engineer’s Office, is taking a core sample of the snowpack. The specially calibrated cylinder measures snow depth, weight, and density.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Water content at this site is 5.5 inches. That means if this snow was to melt instantaneously, there’d be 5.5 inches of water sitting in this meadow,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hoobler collects snowpack information at sites throughout Wyoming, like his colleagues in 12 other Western states, including California, Washington and Alaska. Because these sites are often remote, they can travel up to 70 miles a day by snowshoe, skis, and snowmobiles on surveys, carrying survival equipment to protect them in the event of severe weather.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The main reason we’re up here for snow survey is for river forecasting. In other words, once it all turns to water, how much water is going to exist in our rivers and our reservoirs,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68014\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68014 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/pole-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"This specially-calibrated tube measures snow depth, weight and density. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This specially-calibrated tube measures snow depth, weight and density. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The snow survey program started in the 1930s. Each year surveyors add new data to the collection, validating the record and improving accuracy. Hoobler said understanding the relationship between snowpack and water supply is critical.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Society depends on water -- whether it’s growing the crops we’re going to eat or producing hydroelectric power. Fifty to eighty percent of flows of North Platte River depend on this white stuff -- snow,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One hundred miles southwest, in the South Platte River basin, Mage Hultstrand skis through deep snow just off the highway to get to the Joe Wright SNOTEL site on the top of Cameron Pass in Colorado.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68015\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68015 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/agnes-bit_10_11-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Joe Wright SNOTEL site on Cameron Pass, in Colorado. These sites collect and transmit snowpack and climate data from all over the western U.S. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Joe Wright SNOTEL site on Cameron Pass, in Colorado. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>SNOTEL stands for “snowpack telemetry,” or remote data transmission. Hultstrand is a hydrologist with the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s snow survey program in Denver. Every year more than 700 remote stations like this one track snowpack and climate data, including snow depth and temperature, across the West.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We measure the water content of the snow here,” Hultstrand said, pointing out markers that border the snow pillow, an envelope filled with antifreeze that acts like a scale, weighing the snow and converting it to a measurement of total water content. SNOTEL data are combined with manual snow survey data, collected by people like Hoobler, and compiled into water supply forecasts. Hultstrand said those projections help water providers prepare for the season ahead, determining if they’ll have to apply restrictions in dry years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Water providers and agricultural users start paying attention early in the season to what’s going on. This is the headwater state, so this is where all of your water is coming from, with the exception of whatever precipitation is received in spring and summer,” Hultstrand said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68016\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-68016 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/maggie-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Mage Hultstrand skis to the Joe Wright SNOTEL site near Cameron Pass, in Colorado. \" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mage Hultstrand skis to the Joe Wright SNOTEL site near Cameron Pass, in Colorado. (Photo by Peter Stegen, Platte Basin Timelapse)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Downstream, Nebraska irrigators also rely on groundwater, which is affected by snowfall. But it takes time for that melted snow to travel through the underground aquifer and back to streams and reservoirs, which impacts central Nebraska irrigators. Tom Schwarz farms about 750 certified organic acres near Bertrand, Nebraska. In addition to row crops, he grows vegetables to supply supermarkets in Lincoln and Omaha.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwarz uses groundwater on most of his fields, but also depends on Platte River water stored in Lake McConaughy. Schwarz said he keeps an eye on snowpack but knows there’s a delay in what he and other central Nebraska irrigators will actually receive from the mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When the snow falls this year, it fills up the reservoirs in the mountains. Irrigators in the Panhandle use that water and, in turn, that water goes down into the aquifer and, hopefully, into the river and down to Lake McConaughy for use the following year,” Schwarz said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That water is controlled by the Central Nebraska Public Power and Irrigation District. Spokesman Jeff Buettner said they take that delay into account and watch snowpack and river forecasts and levels at Wyoming reservoirs when planning their water supply. But inflows to Lake McConaughy have been declining for the last decade, partly due to groundwater development and conservation measures upstream. Buettner said 2014 will be the seventh time in the last 10 years that Central Irrigation’s customers will receive less than a full supply of water. This year’s allocation will only be half of what they could expect historically.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, Buettner said water conservation and efficiency is key. Some big snowpack years would help, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back in Wyoming, Matt Hoobler reads the results of his snow survey report.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_68017\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"https://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ftpref/data/water/wcs/earth/snotelwithlabels.kmz&sll=45.467836,-108.446045&sspn=5.369953,8.712158&ie=UTF8&t=h&z=4\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-68017 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/01/SnotelMAP-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"Snowpack in the Platte Basin is above average in several locations. The full interactive map is produced by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Snowpack in the Platte Basin is above average in several locations. Click on the image to see the full interactive map produced by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Last year at this time, we had 17 inches of snow; we have 31 this year. Last year we had 2.7 water content inches; we have 5.5 this year. And our 30-year average is 5.4, so we’re just a hair above average. Any time you can have average, that’s a great day,” Hoobler said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So far, most of the Platte River Basin snowpack reports are above average. But since it’s still midwinter, most water providers will wait to see what the April report brings before getting too excited.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/65956/the-science-of-measuring-snow","authors":["10465"],"categories":["quest_6","quest_9","quest_11766"],"tags":["quest_252","quest_12669","quest_12269","quest_1503","quest_12520","quest_12673","quest_12671","quest_12354","quest_11128","quest_12668","quest_12672","quest_2682","quest_12674","quest_12667","quest_3108","quest_12670"],"featImg":"quest_68020","label":"source_quest_65956"},"quest_64428":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_64428","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"64428","score":null,"sort":[1389016826000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"in-dry-year-california-looks-to-cloud-seeding","title":"In Dry Year, California Looks to Cloud Seeding","publishDate":1389016826,"format":"audio","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{},"content":"\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Northern+California/Radio/Cloud+Seeding/Cloud_seeding_Jan_6_2014.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California’s snowpack is just \u003ca href=\"http://www.water.ca.gov/news/newsreleases/2014/010314.pdf\">20 percent of normal\u003c/a> for this time of year, according to snow survey results released on Friday. That’s not surprising after 2013 ended as the driest year ever recorded in many parts of the state, but it’s fueling concerns about California’s water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With rationing looking likely, water managers are hoping to squeeze every last drop out of Mother Nature with cloud seeding. The decades-old technology is designed to wring extra moisture out of storm systems, though the storms have to appear in the first place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s only so much we can do,” says Jeff Tilley, who runs the cloud seeding program at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.dri.edu/\">Desert Research Institute\u003c/a> in Reno, Nevada. “If we could make the clouds appear out of the thin air, we would, but we can’t do that yet.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This time of year, Tilley and his team are scouring weather imagery, waiting for the right conditions to turn on five ground-based cloud seeding towers. One sits at the summit of the Alpine Meadows Ski Resort, north of Lake Tahoe, right where the chairlift drops off.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The large metal bunker with a chimney on top goes mostly unnoticed by skiers zipping by. It’s not a snow-making machine, like those the ski areas are relying on this winter. The chimney releases tiny particles of silver iodide – the seeds that rise thousands of feet into the clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Water needs some sort of substance to condense upon,” says Tilley. Clouds are made of millions of tiny water droplets, but the droplets don’t automatically fall as rain or snow. They stick to tiny particles like dust.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">I think for the entire Intermountain West, it’s becoming more important\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>If a cloud doesn’t have enough dust, “you have these very static, dead clouds that don’t precipitate, don’t produce any water and just keep moving right through,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s where the silver iodide comes in. Tilley says it’s the right size and shape to help snowflakes form. Cloud seeding only works in certain conditions: cold temperatures with the right wind direction and cloud types. But over a season, Tilley says it can make a difference.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we find is a range of anywhere between eight and 15 percent increase in water,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The silver iodide eventually ends up in the local environment, where some worry it’s a contaminant, though Tilley says tests show it’s only a trace amount.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cloud seeding has been used for six decades in California. In the early days, it was closer to “magical thinking,” an idea Tilley says has stuck around. “We get voodoo,” he says. “We get Dr. Frankenstein. We get all sorts of things. But we’ve been able to refine the technology.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>No Silver Bullet\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“For a long time there’s been hope that we could somehow figure out of a way to squeeze more water out of nature,” says Peter Gleick, president of \u003ca href=\"http://www.pacinst.org/\">The Pacific Institute\u003c/a>, a water policy think tank.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gleick says the problem with cloud seeding is that it’s tough to measure or verify how much water it produces and if it’s worth the investment. \u003ca href=\"http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=10829\">A review\u003c/a> by the National Academy of Sciences in 2003 found that more research needs to be done to prove its effectiveness.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_65564\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 360px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/DWR-map.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-65564\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/DWR-map.jpg\" alt=\"Click to enlarge - cloud seeding areas in California. (Source: California Department of Water Resources)\" width=\"360\" height=\"535\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Click to enlarge - cloud seeding areas in California. (Source: California Department of Water Resources)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“But even more importantly, it’s limited no matter what,” says Gleick. “We get a certain number of clouds with moisture in them. If we can wring a little more out of those clouds, that’s sort of the idea behind cloud seeding. But we’re not going to wring a lot more out of those clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So it’s not a silver bullet,\" he says. \"There is no silver bullet for California’s water problems.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nine other western states also use cloud seeding, where it’s commonly done with airplanes. The Desert Research Institute is also looking into using drones, potentially cutting the cost of flights.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Across California, water agencies and utilities spend $3-to-5 million a year on seeding, which is estimated to boost runoff by around four percent. That might not sound like much, but these days when every drop counts, Jeff Tilley says cloud seeding getting a second wind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I think for the entire Intermountain West, it’s becoming more important,” he says. “It’s not going to be the whole answer but it can be one tool in the toolkit and it’s a cost-effective one.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Snowstorms from Dust Storms\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003c/strong>Improving cloud seeding may depend on scientists unraveling something that’s still mysterious: what exactly makes it rain?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s incredibly complicated,” says Kim Prather, who studies atmospheric chemistry at the University of California-San Diego.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prather wanted to know why some clouds produce snow in the Sierra Nevada and others don’t. So, she and her team flew an airplane through the clouds, testing them to see what kinds of tiny particles were forming snowflakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What she found was a big surprise. On snowy days, the clouds contained dust from a faraway source.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Dust had made its way across the Pacific, clear from Asia and even Africa, the Middle East where there are these big dust storms,” she says. “Takes about 7-to-10 days to get here, but it makes it. It’s not a lot of dust. It’s just the right amount of dust that seeds the very top of the clouds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prather says that type of dust can boost snowfall, but other kinds of particles seem to have the opposite effect. Air pollution, from California sources and all the way from Asia, could be adding too many tiny cloud seeds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s only so much water available and in order to get rain, you have to have big enough droplets for them to fall. The more seeds you have, you have many more tiny droplets. If you have too many seeds, you’re not going to get precipitation out of that cloud.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Potentially it’s us affecting our own water supply,” she says. “Potentially it’s stuff coming from much farther away and to be able to sort that out, we’re just at the tip of the iceberg.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prather says understanding that process could improve cloud-seeding techniques or show when it may not be effective, something that could be key as California relies more than ever on every last raindrop.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"There’s no doubt about it – it’s dry out there. 2013 ended as the driest year ever recorded in many parts of California. So water managers are trying to squeeze out every last drop with an old technology: cloud seeding.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1442706879,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":31,"wordCount":1185},"headData":{"title":"In Dry Year, California Looks to Cloud Seeding | KQED","description":"There’s no doubt about it – it’s dry out there. 2013 ended as the driest year ever recorded in many parts of California. So water managers are trying to squeeze out every last drop with an old technology: cloud seeding.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"64428 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=64428","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2014/01/06/in-dry-year-california-looks-to-cloud-seeding/","disqusTitle":"In Dry Year, California Looks to Cloud Seeding","source":"Environment","sourceUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/category/environment/","path":"/quest/64428/in-dry-year-california-looks-to-cloud-seeding","audioUrl":"https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Northern+California/Radio/Cloud+Seeding/Cloud_seeding_Jan_6_2014.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Northern+California/Radio/Cloud+Seeding/Cloud_seeding_Jan_6_2014.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California’s snowpack is just \u003ca href=\"http://www.water.ca.gov/news/newsreleases/2014/010314.pdf\">20 percent of normal\u003c/a> for this time of year, according to snow survey results released on Friday. That’s not surprising after 2013 ended as the driest year ever recorded in many parts of the state, but it’s fueling concerns about California’s water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With rationing looking likely, water managers are hoping to squeeze every last drop out of Mother Nature with cloud seeding. The decades-old technology is designed to wring extra moisture out of storm systems, though the storms have to appear in the first place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s only so much we can do,” says Jeff Tilley, who runs the cloud seeding program at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.dri.edu/\">Desert Research Institute\u003c/a> in Reno, Nevada. “If we could make the clouds appear out of the thin air, we would, but we can’t do that yet.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This time of year, Tilley and his team are scouring weather imagery, waiting for the right conditions to turn on five ground-based cloud seeding towers. One sits at the summit of the Alpine Meadows Ski Resort, north of Lake Tahoe, right where the chairlift drops off.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The large metal bunker with a chimney on top goes mostly unnoticed by skiers zipping by. It’s not a snow-making machine, like those the ski areas are relying on this winter. The chimney releases tiny particles of silver iodide – the seeds that rise thousands of feet into the clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Water needs some sort of substance to condense upon,” says Tilley. Clouds are made of millions of tiny water droplets, but the droplets don’t automatically fall as rain or snow. They stick to tiny particles like dust.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">I think for the entire Intermountain West, it’s becoming more important\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>If a cloud doesn’t have enough dust, “you have these very static, dead clouds that don’t precipitate, don’t produce any water and just keep moving right through,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s where the silver iodide comes in. Tilley says it’s the right size and shape to help snowflakes form. Cloud seeding only works in certain conditions: cold temperatures with the right wind direction and cloud types. But over a season, Tilley says it can make a difference.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we find is a range of anywhere between eight and 15 percent increase in water,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The silver iodide eventually ends up in the local environment, where some worry it’s a contaminant, though Tilley says tests show it’s only a trace amount.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cloud seeding has been used for six decades in California. In the early days, it was closer to “magical thinking,” an idea Tilley says has stuck around. “We get voodoo,” he says. “We get Dr. Frankenstein. We get all sorts of things. But we’ve been able to refine the technology.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>No Silver Bullet\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“For a long time there’s been hope that we could somehow figure out of a way to squeeze more water out of nature,” says Peter Gleick, president of \u003ca href=\"http://www.pacinst.org/\">The Pacific Institute\u003c/a>, a water policy think tank.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gleick says the problem with cloud seeding is that it’s tough to measure or verify how much water it produces and if it’s worth the investment. \u003ca href=\"http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=10829\">A review\u003c/a> by the National Academy of Sciences in 2003 found that more research needs to be done to prove its effectiveness.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_65564\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 360px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/DWR-map.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-65564\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/DWR-map.jpg\" alt=\"Click to enlarge - cloud seeding areas in California. (Source: California Department of Water Resources)\" width=\"360\" height=\"535\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Click to enlarge - cloud seeding areas in California. (Source: California Department of Water Resources)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“But even more importantly, it’s limited no matter what,” says Gleick. “We get a certain number of clouds with moisture in them. If we can wring a little more out of those clouds, that’s sort of the idea behind cloud seeding. But we’re not going to wring a lot more out of those clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So it’s not a silver bullet,\" he says. \"There is no silver bullet for California’s water problems.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nine other western states also use cloud seeding, where it’s commonly done with airplanes. The Desert Research Institute is also looking into using drones, potentially cutting the cost of flights.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Across California, water agencies and utilities spend $3-to-5 million a year on seeding, which is estimated to boost runoff by around four percent. That might not sound like much, but these days when every drop counts, Jeff Tilley says cloud seeding getting a second wind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I think for the entire Intermountain West, it’s becoming more important,” he says. “It’s not going to be the whole answer but it can be one tool in the toolkit and it’s a cost-effective one.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Snowstorms from Dust Storms\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003c/strong>Improving cloud seeding may depend on scientists unraveling something that’s still mysterious: what exactly makes it rain?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s incredibly complicated,” says Kim Prather, who studies atmospheric chemistry at the University of California-San Diego.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prather wanted to know why some clouds produce snow in the Sierra Nevada and others don’t. So, she and her team flew an airplane through the clouds, testing them to see what kinds of tiny particles were forming snowflakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What she found was a big surprise. On snowy days, the clouds contained dust from a faraway source.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Dust had made its way across the Pacific, clear from Asia and even Africa, the Middle East where there are these big dust storms,” she says. “Takes about 7-to-10 days to get here, but it makes it. It’s not a lot of dust. It’s just the right amount of dust that seeds the very top of the clouds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prather says that type of dust can boost snowfall, but other kinds of particles seem to have the opposite effect. Air pollution, from California sources and all the way from Asia, could be adding too many tiny cloud seeds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s only so much water available and in order to get rain, you have to have big enough droplets for them to fall. The more seeds you have, you have many more tiny droplets. If you have too many seeds, you’re not going to get precipitation out of that cloud.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Potentially it’s us affecting our own water supply,” she says. “Potentially it’s stuff coming from much farther away and to be able to sort that out, we’re just at the tip of the iceberg.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prather says understanding that process could improve cloud-seeding techniques or show when it may not be effective, something that could be key as California relies more than ever on every last raindrop.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/64428/in-dry-year-california-looks-to-cloud-seeding","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_6","quest_8","quest_9","quest_11766"],"tags":["quest_12536","quest_252","quest_621","quest_12540","quest_12538","quest_12537","quest_886","quest_13198","quest_12269","quest_10174","quest_13","quest_12535","quest_2682","quest_3108","quest_19","quest_12539"],"featImg":"quest_65559","label":"source_quest_64428"},"quest_14497":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_14497","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"14497","score":null,"sort":[1305320428000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"insuring-for-extreme-weather-2","title":"Insuring for Extreme Weather","publishDate":1305320428,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/extremeweather3002.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Water forecasting could be thrown off by a changing climate. Credit: Craig Miller\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The severe flooding on the Mississippi River has left a lot of damage in its wake. It's an extreme event that government and insurance companies try to plan for by predicting the risk. But climate change is throwing a wrench in those calculations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of us don't think about risk. We think about randomness. That's illustrated by a scene in the 1982 movie, \"\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_According_to_Garp\">The World According to Garp\u003c/a>\", where Robin Williams is shopping for a new house with his wife. They're standing in front of one home when...a plane crashes into it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite the crash, the Robin Williams character agrees to buy the house saying, \"It's been pre-disastered! We'll be safe here.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That may not be a typical reaction, but climatologist Kelly Redmond says it reveals a lot about how we think about risk. \"It has to do with how we describe rare things. We spend societally an enormous amount of resources and time and attention guarding against the very worst possibilities.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=\"QUEST Audio Player\" skin=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip\" file=\"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/05/2011-05-16-quest.mp3\" ]\u003cbr>\n\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/insuring-for-extreme-weather\">Insuring for Extreme Weather \u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>You've probably heard of the \"\u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/FS-229-96/\">100-year flood\u003c/a>.\" That's a flood so severe that it has a one in one hundred chance of happening every year. But how do we know that?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"About the only way we can get at how rare a rare thing is is by looking at a past record,\" says Redmond. So for floods, government agencies look into the historical record to see when floods happened in the past. They use that record to predict future flood risk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But this relies on a very basic assumption. According to Redmond, the assumption is that the statistics of the future will look like the statistics of the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a fancy term for this – it's called \u003ca href=\"http://aquadoc.typepad.com/waterwired/2008/02/stationarity-is.html\">stationarity\u003c/a>. But there's a problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"What we don't know but what we suspect with changes in climate is that those statistics, especially about rare things, may change,\" says Redmond.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The US is already warming. Climate models show that western states could see more extreme weather as the climate continues to change. So, Redmond says, chances are good the future won't look like the recent past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jeanine Jones of the California Department Water of Resources agrees, saying \"a lot of California's existing infrastructure was designed on assumptions that are no longer valid.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>History of Water Forecasting in the West\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jones says using the past as a guide for the future is a huge part of water planning and building codes. The idea was first adopted in the 1940s and 50s, when dams and infrastructure were built at record speed in western states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Congress was looking at all these water development plans coming in from the Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation and wanting a common standard to compare all the projects,\" says Jones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So they forecasted flood risk and water supply by looking at historical data. \"But they had very short data records. Maybe they only measured records of 20 years, 50 years. And that's not really very long,\" Jones says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, everything from building codes to home insurance is based on this short window of data. And so is another critical forecast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During the winter, surveyors measure the Sierra Nevada snow pack every month, so they can crunch the numbers and predict the year's water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It is very widely used by reservoir operators, by water agencies, by farmers who are looking at what are my chances for having a full water supply,\" says Jones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But climate models show that more precipitation will fall as rain in California, instead of snow. And that means spring runoff could behave very differently. \"At some point, conditions will change enough that we've reached a tipping point where those statistical approaches really aren't valid anymore,\" Jones says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An accurate water forecast is crucial to California's economy. So Jones says water officials are looking at using computer models to forecast spring runoff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when it comes to updating flood risk and building codes to reflect climate change, Kelly Redmond says that could take decades. \"We have to get a buy in from the engineering community, the city planners. Because there's so much expense to goes into building a bridge or a culvert or a building.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A New Breed of Insurance Company\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is one industry that's taking note of climate change – insurance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The increased variability in climate is going to start to dramatically affect the profits of corporations worldwide,\" says David Friedberg, CEO of San Francisco-based \u003ca href=\"http://www.weatherbill.com/\">Weatherbill\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Weatherbill is something of a next generation insurance company. They start with computer models that simulate weather and climate patterns. \"We then use those sorts of models to determine what sort of price we should charge for certain weather events occurring,\" says Friedberg.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Weatherbill works mostly with farmers, insuring them against extreme weather for between 40 and 400 dollars an acre. \"There's a range of things that can occur and that range is certainly widening. And as a result we should start to charge more for those sorts of events when we're insuring them.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Friedberg says this kind of insurance makes sense to a lot of farmers they work with, who are already noticing changing weather patterns. Investor Vinod Kholsa and Google have also noticed and put millions into the company. They're betting new software will be the answer when today's methods no longer work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Climate change is throwing a wrench into the calculations of insurance companies trying to assess the risks of floods and other natural disaster events.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371060956,"stats":{"hasAudio":true,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":34,"wordCount":971},"headData":{"title":"Insuring for Extreme Weather | KQED","description":"","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"14497 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/05/13/insuring-for-extreme-weather/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/05/13/insuring-for-extreme-weather-2/","disqusTitle":"Insuring for Extreme Weather","path":"/quest/14497/insuring-for-extreme-weather-2","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/05/2011-05-16-quest.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/extremeweather3002.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Water forecasting could be thrown off by a changing climate. Credit: Craig Miller\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The severe flooding on the Mississippi River has left a lot of damage in its wake. It's an extreme event that government and insurance companies try to plan for by predicting the risk. But climate change is throwing a wrench in those calculations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of us don't think about risk. We think about randomness. That's illustrated by a scene in the 1982 movie, \"\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_According_to_Garp\">The World According to Garp\u003c/a>\", where Robin Williams is shopping for a new house with his wife. They're standing in front of one home when...a plane crashes into it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite the crash, the Robin Williams character agrees to buy the house saying, \"It's been pre-disastered! We'll be safe here.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That may not be a typical reaction, but climatologist Kelly Redmond says it reveals a lot about how we think about risk. \"It has to do with how we describe rare things. We spend societally an enormous amount of resources and time and attention guarding against the very worst possibilities.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=\"QUEST Audio Player\" skin=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip\" file=\"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/05/2011-05-16-quest.mp3\" ]\u003cbr>\n\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/insuring-for-extreme-weather\">Insuring for Extreme Weather \u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>You've probably heard of the \"\u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/FS-229-96/\">100-year flood\u003c/a>.\" That's a flood so severe that it has a one in one hundred chance of happening every year. But how do we know that?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"About the only way we can get at how rare a rare thing is is by looking at a past record,\" says Redmond. So for floods, government agencies look into the historical record to see when floods happened in the past. They use that record to predict future flood risk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But this relies on a very basic assumption. According to Redmond, the assumption is that the statistics of the future will look like the statistics of the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a fancy term for this – it's called \u003ca href=\"http://aquadoc.typepad.com/waterwired/2008/02/stationarity-is.html\">stationarity\u003c/a>. But there's a problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"What we don't know but what we suspect with changes in climate is that those statistics, especially about rare things, may change,\" says Redmond.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The US is already warming. Climate models show that western states could see more extreme weather as the climate continues to change. So, Redmond says, chances are good the future won't look like the recent past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jeanine Jones of the California Department Water of Resources agrees, saying \"a lot of California's existing infrastructure was designed on assumptions that are no longer valid.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>History of Water Forecasting in the West\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jones says using the past as a guide for the future is a huge part of water planning and building codes. The idea was first adopted in the 1940s and 50s, when dams and infrastructure were built at record speed in western states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Congress was looking at all these water development plans coming in from the Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation and wanting a common standard to compare all the projects,\" says Jones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So they forecasted flood risk and water supply by looking at historical data. \"But they had very short data records. Maybe they only measured records of 20 years, 50 years. And that's not really very long,\" Jones says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, everything from building codes to home insurance is based on this short window of data. And so is another critical forecast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During the winter, surveyors measure the Sierra Nevada snow pack every month, so they can crunch the numbers and predict the year's water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It is very widely used by reservoir operators, by water agencies, by farmers who are looking at what are my chances for having a full water supply,\" says Jones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But climate models show that more precipitation will fall as rain in California, instead of snow. And that means spring runoff could behave very differently. \"At some point, conditions will change enough that we've reached a tipping point where those statistical approaches really aren't valid anymore,\" Jones says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An accurate water forecast is crucial to California's economy. So Jones says water officials are looking at using computer models to forecast spring runoff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when it comes to updating flood risk and building codes to reflect climate change, Kelly Redmond says that could take decades. \"We have to get a buy in from the engineering community, the city planners. Because there's so much expense to goes into building a bridge or a culvert or a building.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A New Breed of Insurance Company\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is one industry that's taking note of climate change – insurance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The increased variability in climate is going to start to dramatically affect the profits of corporations worldwide,\" says David Friedberg, CEO of San Francisco-based \u003ca href=\"http://www.weatherbill.com/\">Weatherbill\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Weatherbill is something of a next generation insurance company. They start with computer models that simulate weather and climate patterns. \"We then use those sorts of models to determine what sort of price we should charge for certain weather events occurring,\" says Friedberg.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Weatherbill works mostly with farmers, insuring them against extreme weather for between 40 and 400 dollars an acre. \"There's a range of things that can occur and that range is certainly widening. And as a result we should start to charge more for those sorts of events when we're insuring them.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Friedberg says this kind of insurance makes sense to a lot of farmers they work with, who are already noticing changing weather patterns. Investor Vinod Kholsa and Google have also noticed and put millions into the company. They're betting new software will be the answer when today's methods no longer work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/14497/insuring-for-extreme-weather-2","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_6"],"tags":["quest_438","quest_13195","quest_621","quest_1114","quest_1477","quest_13203","quest_3339","quest_2682","quest_3108","quest_3340"],"featImg":"quest_14501","label":"quest"},"quest_17075":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_17075","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"17075","score":null,"sort":[1298910600000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"the-science-of-snow-2","title":"The Science of Snow","publishDate":1298910600,"format":"audio","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/02/2011-02-28-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's been a harsh winter across the US. Snow has blanketed the Sierra Nevada, where the snowpack is well above normal. Lots of snow means good skiing, but it also means an increased danger of avalanches. Lauren Sommer travels to Lake Tahoe where researchers are trying to understand the inner workings of snow a little bit better.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"It's been a harsh winter across the US. Snow has blanketed the Sierra Nevada, where the snowpack is well above normal. Lots of snow means good skiing, but it also means an increased danger of avalanches. Lauren Sommer travels to Lake Tahoe where researchers are trying to understand the inner workings of snow a little bit better.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1310161074,"stats":{"hasAudio":true,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":3,"wordCount":75},"headData":{"title":"The Science of Snow | KQED","description":"","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"17075 http://science.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-science-of-snow/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/02/28/the-science-of-snow-2/","disqusTitle":"The Science of Snow","path":"/quest/17075/the-science-of-snow-2","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/02/2011-02-28-quest.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/02/2011-02-28-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's been a harsh winter across the US. Snow has blanketed the Sierra Nevada, where the snowpack is well above normal. Lots of snow means good skiing, but it also means an increased danger of avalanches. Lauren Sommer travels to Lake Tahoe where researchers are trying to understand the inner workings of snow a little bit better.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/17075/the-science-of-snow-2","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_6"],"tags":["quest_252","quest_1881","quest_2141","quest_2349","quest_13202","quest_3339","quest_2630","quest_2644","quest_3328","quest_2682","quest_3108","quest_3340","quest_19"],"featImg":"quest_12549","label":"quest"},"quest_19193":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_19193","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"19193","score":null,"sort":[1298670985000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"the-science-of-snow","title":"The Science of Snow","publishDate":1298670985,"format":"standard","headTitle":"The Science of Snow | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/avalanche300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s been a harsh winter across the US. Snow has blanketed the Sierra Nevada, where the snowpack is well above normal. Lots of snow means good skiing, but it also means an increased danger of avalanches. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Avalanches aren’t something most skiers and snowboarders have to think about. That’s because ski areas take preventative action.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the backside of \u003ca href=\"http://www.squaw.com/\">Squaw Valley Ski Resort\u003c/a>, two ski patrollers drop into a black diamond run known as Granite Chief. Below them are mounds of fresh, untouched powder – more than seven feet deep. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The patrollers are throwing explosive charges onto the slopes to trigger smaller, less dangerous avalanches. Booms ring out across the mountain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=”QUEST Audio Player” skin=”http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip” file=”http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/02/2011-02-28-quest.mp3″ ]\u003cbr>\n\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-science-of-snow\">The Science of Snow\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>“The Sierras are known for getting tons of snow really quick,” says Will Paden, the avalanche forecaster at Squaw Valley Ski Resort. “We’re constantly trying to start the avalanches so that we don’t let the snow pack build up to be too deep.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Paden says on a day like today, they’ll use more than a thousand pounds of explosives to make the ski area safe. But the job isn’t over when the snow stops falling. The snowpack is constantly changing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“One day could be perfect powder and then that afternoon the wind can pick up and put wind crust on top of that perfect powder and make it difficult skiing,” says Paden.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Avalanche forecasting is even more technical. “We had a lot of riming in this snow and some graupel events.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To translate that, you have to go inside the snowpack.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a slope outside of Truckee, Brandon Schwartz uses a shovel to cut a cross-section in the snow. As a forecaster with the non-profit \u003ca href=\"http://www.sierraavalanchecenter.org/\">Sierra Avalanche Center\u003c/a>, Schwartz has dug thousands of avalanche pits like this one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/avalanche.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"vernal-pool\" width=\"260\" height=\"320\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-12179\">\u003cem>An avalanche near Echo Summit in Lake Tahoe.\u003cbr>\nCredit: Travis Feist\u003c/em>\u003c/span>“We can feel the different hardness of all the layers that have formed in the snow that’s fallen over the last two to three days,” says Schwartz.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwartz is looking for weak layers of snow, which is where avalanches begin. He pulls out a saw and slices through the snow to isolate a one foot wide column. Then he places his shovel on top. “And we’ll just start to load on top of it first with ten taps just from my wrist, just from lifting my wrist and letting gravity pull my hand down.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those taps simulate what a little weight would do to the snowpack, either from more snow falling or from a skier. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwartz points to where the snowpack has broken away along a straight line. “So we got a pretty significant crack all the way across the column here. Definitely a difference in strength there and that’s what makes up the layers of snow pack and when we have these layers of different characteristics then we start to get some of the ingredients for a slab avalanche.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwartz and his team travel into the backcountry every day to assess the avalanche danger in the Tahoe region. Of the 36 people who died in avalanches across the United States last winter, almost all of them were in the backcountry. A large storm like this one means today the danger is high.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what makes some snow weaker than other snow?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Once we have snow on the ground, a whole bunch of really interesting things happen. You think of the snow as being rather static, but it’s not at all,” says Jeff Dozier, an environmental scientist at the University of California-Santa Barbara who studies how snow impacts California’s water supply. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dozier says to understand what’s happening, you have go all the way down to the level of a snowflake. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once the snow falls, the snow crystals will start to stick together. As they sit there, the crystals grow rounder and bond together. “And if you shovel snow, you see this. If you shovel snow when it’s new, you can stick the shovel in the snow and you can lift it. You shovel snow when it’s old, it’s hard to break that block of snow loose from its neighbor.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When a lot of snow falls quickly like it does in the Sierras, this bonding process may not happen fast enough to support the snowpack, which leads to avalanches. The warmer a snowpack is, the faster it bonds. But if it’s colder, sometimes a different kind of crystal grows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Typically the temperature at the base of the snowpack – this is gonna be around zero degrees C. But on a very cold night, the temperature at the surface say might be -20 degrees C,” says Dozier.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That difference in temperature can create another shape of crystal – a faceted crystal. “They’re sort of angular. They don’t bond together very well.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These crystals look like grains of sugar and they create weak layers deep in the snowpack. A better understanding of snow crystals could help avalanche forecasters. Dozier says it could also help water managers trying to anticipate the snowpack melt in the spring, an event that’s critical to the state’s water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Avalanche forecaster Brandon Schwartz in the field:\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"560\" height=\"349\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/zdUJ2KI4EQs?rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.623317 -122.02352\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Lots of snow means good skiing, but it also means an increased danger of avalanches.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1684974530,"stats":{"hasAudio":true,"hasVideo":true,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":31,"wordCount":971},"headData":{"title":"The Science of Snow | KQED","description":"Lots of snow means good skiing, but it also means an increased danger of avalanches.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"templateType":"standard","featuredImageType":"standard","excludeFromSiteSearch":"Include","articleAge":"0","path":"/quest/19193/the-science-of-snow","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/02/2011-02-28-quest.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/avalanche300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s been a harsh winter across the US. Snow has blanketed the Sierra Nevada, where the snowpack is well above normal. Lots of snow means good skiing, but it also means an increased danger of avalanches. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Avalanches aren’t something most skiers and snowboarders have to think about. That’s because ski areas take preventative action.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the backside of \u003ca href=\"http://www.squaw.com/\">Squaw Valley Ski Resort\u003c/a>, two ski patrollers drop into a black diamond run known as Granite Chief. Below them are mounds of fresh, untouched powder – more than seven feet deep. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The patrollers are throwing explosive charges onto the slopes to trigger smaller, less dangerous avalanches. Booms ring out across the mountain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=”QUEST Audio Player” skin=”http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip” file=”http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/02/2011-02-28-quest.mp3″ ]\u003cbr>\n\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-science-of-snow\">The Science of Snow\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>“The Sierras are known for getting tons of snow really quick,” says Will Paden, the avalanche forecaster at Squaw Valley Ski Resort. “We’re constantly trying to start the avalanches so that we don’t let the snow pack build up to be too deep.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Paden says on a day like today, they’ll use more than a thousand pounds of explosives to make the ski area safe. But the job isn’t over when the snow stops falling. The snowpack is constantly changing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“One day could be perfect powder and then that afternoon the wind can pick up and put wind crust on top of that perfect powder and make it difficult skiing,” says Paden.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Avalanche forecasting is even more technical. “We had a lot of riming in this snow and some graupel events.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To translate that, you have to go inside the snowpack.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a slope outside of Truckee, Brandon Schwartz uses a shovel to cut a cross-section in the snow. As a forecaster with the non-profit \u003ca href=\"http://www.sierraavalanchecenter.org/\">Sierra Avalanche Center\u003c/a>, Schwartz has dug thousands of avalanche pits like this one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/avalanche.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"vernal-pool\" width=\"260\" height=\"320\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-12179\">\u003cem>An avalanche near Echo Summit in Lake Tahoe.\u003cbr>\nCredit: Travis Feist\u003c/em>\u003c/span>“We can feel the different hardness of all the layers that have formed in the snow that’s fallen over the last two to three days,” says Schwartz.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwartz is looking for weak layers of snow, which is where avalanches begin. He pulls out a saw and slices through the snow to isolate a one foot wide column. Then he places his shovel on top. “And we’ll just start to load on top of it first with ten taps just from my wrist, just from lifting my wrist and letting gravity pull my hand down.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those taps simulate what a little weight would do to the snowpack, either from more snow falling or from a skier. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwartz points to where the snowpack has broken away along a straight line. “So we got a pretty significant crack all the way across the column here. Definitely a difference in strength there and that’s what makes up the layers of snow pack and when we have these layers of different characteristics then we start to get some of the ingredients for a slab avalanche.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Schwartz and his team travel into the backcountry every day to assess the avalanche danger in the Tahoe region. Of the 36 people who died in avalanches across the United States last winter, almost all of them were in the backcountry. A large storm like this one means today the danger is high.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what makes some snow weaker than other snow?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Once we have snow on the ground, a whole bunch of really interesting things happen. You think of the snow as being rather static, but it’s not at all,” says Jeff Dozier, an environmental scientist at the University of California-Santa Barbara who studies how snow impacts California’s water supply. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dozier says to understand what’s happening, you have go all the way down to the level of a snowflake. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once the snow falls, the snow crystals will start to stick together. As they sit there, the crystals grow rounder and bond together. “And if you shovel snow, you see this. If you shovel snow when it’s new, you can stick the shovel in the snow and you can lift it. You shovel snow when it’s old, it’s hard to break that block of snow loose from its neighbor.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When a lot of snow falls quickly like it does in the Sierras, this bonding process may not happen fast enough to support the snowpack, which leads to avalanches. The warmer a snowpack is, the faster it bonds. But if it’s colder, sometimes a different kind of crystal grows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Typically the temperature at the base of the snowpack – this is gonna be around zero degrees C. But on a very cold night, the temperature at the surface say might be -20 degrees C,” says Dozier.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That difference in temperature can create another shape of crystal – a faceted crystal. “They’re sort of angular. They don’t bond together very well.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These crystals look like grains of sugar and they create weak layers deep in the snowpack. A better understanding of snow crystals could help avalanche forecasters. Dozier says it could also help water managers trying to anticipate the snowpack melt in the spring, an event that’s critical to the state’s water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Avalanche forecaster Brandon Schwartz in the field:\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"560\" height=\"349\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/zdUJ2KI4EQs?rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.623317 -122.02352\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/19193/the-science-of-snow","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_6"],"tags":["quest_1881","quest_13203","quest_3339","quest_2630","quest_2644","quest_2682","quest_3108","quest_3340","quest_19"],"featImg":"quest_12521","label":"quest"},"quest_11381":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_11381","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"11381","score":null,"sort":[1294333203000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"volcanic-rocks-on-display-at-kirkwood-ski-resort","title":"Skiing Volcano Country","publishDate":1294333203,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/kirkwood11.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Kirkwood Mountain Resort.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's that time of year when people head up to the Sierra Nevada Mountains for some great skiing and snowboarding. This season is looking to be a good one with a handful of big storms dumping \u003ca href=\"http://www.onthesnow.com/sierra-nevada/skireport.html\">huge amounts of snow\u003c/a> on resorts and in back-country terrain. Although deep snow cover obscures the view of some of the geology, the views from chair lifts and other vistas while skiing is a fantastic opportunity to think about the geologic evolution of these mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My favorite ski area in the Sierra is \u003ca href=\"http://www.kirkwood.com/site/\">Kirkwood Mountain Resort\u003c/a>, which is along State Route 88 approximately three to three and a half hour drive from San Francisco and 20-30 minutes from the town of South Lake Tahoe. In addition to great terrain, Kirkwood has some fantastic geology, some of which you can ski right up to and check out in detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rocks exposed at the surface on the mountains of Kirkwood are various volcanic rocks ranging from about \u003ca href=\"http://bulletin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/120/3-4/274\">6 million to 15 million years old\u003c/a> (depending on exactly where you are). The volcanic deposits at Kirkwood are nothing like the smooth lava flows you might see on the Big Island of Hawai'i. They are more similar to the recent volcanic deposits seen on the flanks of and in areas adjacent to the Cascades volcanoes in northern California, Oregon, and Washington.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\u003ca title=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good by Dean_In_SF, on Flickr\" href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http://farm1.static.flickr.com/27/58344556_9e83e23eeb.jpg\" alt=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good\" width=\"500\" height=\"341\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the cliffs exposed at Kirkwood during the winter are beautiful volcanic debris flow deposits that have up to boulder-sized chunks of igneous rock within a fine-grained rock. These rocks are interpreted to be the deposits of mixtures of mud, sand, and volcanic rock debris that flowed down the flanks of the now-extinct volcanoes. I forgot the name of the specific trail -- please comment if you know -- but there is a great run where you can take a short break to catch your breath and walk up to some outcrops of these debris flow deposits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, next time you're sitting on the chair lift waiting to take that next run, look around at these beautiful mountains and picture the ancient volcanic landscape that created the terrain you're skiing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images: (1) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/malparkington/288452552/\">Kirkwood\u003c/a> from Mal Parkington / Flickr; (2) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">Glove Rock\u003c/a> from Dean_In_SF / Flickr\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.69783641265611 -120.04325863905251\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Next time you're sitting on the chair lift waiting to take that next run at Kirkwood, look around at these beautiful mountains and picture the ancient volcanic landscape that created the terrain.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1294333203,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":384},"headData":{"title":"Skiing Volcano Country | KQED","description":"Next time you're sitting on the chair lift waiting to take that next run at Kirkwood, look around at these beautiful mountains and picture the ancient volcanic landscape that created the terrain.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"11381 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=11381","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/01/06/volcanic-rocks-on-display-at-kirkwood-ski-resort/","disqusTitle":"Skiing Volcano Country","path":"/quest/11381/volcanic-rocks-on-display-at-kirkwood-ski-resort","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/kirkwood11.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Kirkwood Mountain Resort.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's that time of year when people head up to the Sierra Nevada Mountains for some great skiing and snowboarding. This season is looking to be a good one with a handful of big storms dumping \u003ca href=\"http://www.onthesnow.com/sierra-nevada/skireport.html\">huge amounts of snow\u003c/a> on resorts and in back-country terrain. Although deep snow cover obscures the view of some of the geology, the views from chair lifts and other vistas while skiing is a fantastic opportunity to think about the geologic evolution of these mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My favorite ski area in the Sierra is \u003ca href=\"http://www.kirkwood.com/site/\">Kirkwood Mountain Resort\u003c/a>, which is along State Route 88 approximately three to three and a half hour drive from San Francisco and 20-30 minutes from the town of South Lake Tahoe. In addition to great terrain, Kirkwood has some fantastic geology, some of which you can ski right up to and check out in detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rocks exposed at the surface on the mountains of Kirkwood are various volcanic rocks ranging from about \u003ca href=\"http://bulletin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/120/3-4/274\">6 million to 15 million years old\u003c/a> (depending on exactly where you are). The volcanic deposits at Kirkwood are nothing like the smooth lava flows you might see on the Big Island of Hawai'i. They are more similar to the recent volcanic deposits seen on the flanks of and in areas adjacent to the Cascades volcanoes in northern California, Oregon, and Washington.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\u003ca title=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good by Dean_In_SF, on Flickr\" href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http://farm1.static.flickr.com/27/58344556_9e83e23eeb.jpg\" alt=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good\" width=\"500\" height=\"341\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the cliffs exposed at Kirkwood during the winter are beautiful volcanic debris flow deposits that have up to boulder-sized chunks of igneous rock within a fine-grained rock. These rocks are interpreted to be the deposits of mixtures of mud, sand, and volcanic rock debris that flowed down the flanks of the now-extinct volcanoes. I forgot the name of the specific trail -- please comment if you know -- but there is a great run where you can take a short break to catch your breath and walk up to some outcrops of these debris flow deposits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, next time you're sitting on the chair lift waiting to take that next run, look around at these beautiful mountains and picture the ancient volcanic landscape that created the terrain you're skiing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images: (1) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/malparkington/288452552/\">Kirkwood\u003c/a> from Mal Parkington / Flickr; (2) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">Glove Rock\u003c/a> from Dean_In_SF / Flickr\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.69783641265611 -120.04325863905251\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/11381/volcanic-rocks-on-display-at-kirkwood-ski-resort","authors":["10171"],"categories":["quest_11"],"tags":["quest_13200","quest_1575","quest_1881","quest_2630","quest_2644","quest_2682"],"featImg":"quest_11394","label":"quest"},"quest_10828":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_10828","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"10828","score":null,"sort":[1291051329000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"living-in-la-nina","title":"Living in La Niña","publishDate":1291051329,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/westus_tmo_2010329_21.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Satellite image of the western United States, taken on Thanksgiving Day. Image: NASA.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>This Thanksgiving weekend, Bay Area skiers had a lot to be thankful for--ski resorts in the Lake Tahoe area received over 170 inches of snow throughout the weekend. But heavy snow and rain are not expected to continue in the Bay Area, because the world is experiencing a La Niña.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The defining sign of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.elnino.noaa.gov/lanina.html\">La Niña\u003c/a> is cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, near the equator. Cooler water evaporates less than warmer water, so there is less moisture in the air. This means that during a La Niña, there is less precipitation in some areas, like California and the southern United States. Other areas, like the Pacific Northwest, get more precipitation during a La Niña. (Book your winter ski trip strategically!)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/anomnight.current1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Sea surface temperature anomalies on November 25, 2010. The equatorial Pacific is cooler than usual (note the blue color), a characteristic of a La Nina event. Image: \u003ca href=\"http://www.elnino.noaa.gov/index.html\">NOAA\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>La Niña also affects air temperature. During a La Niña, the South is typically warmer, while Southern California and the Pacific Northwest are cooler. You can see \u003ca href=\"http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal.php?lead=1\">climate predictions\u003c/a> for the next three months, from the National Weather Service Climate Prediction Center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A La Niña is basically the opposite of an \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html\">El Niño\u003c/a>. El Niños are characterized by warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific. This happens when the atmospheric pressure system gets a bit out of whack. Usually there is high pressure over the Pacific Ocean and low pressure over the Indian Ocean—picture a see-saw anchored over New Zealand, with the heavy kid sitting on the end over Indonesia. For reasons we don’t quite understand, sometimes the see-saw tilts the other way—now the heavy kid is sitting in the southeastern Pacific, and the kid on the Indonesian side is way up in the air.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This swap in atmospheric pressure has quite a few consequences. The trade winds (which typically blow across the Pacific from the east to the west) get weaker. The water that the trade winds usually push westward instead piles up and moves east. This water is warm, and it evaporates, causing more rainfall along the west coast of South America. Meanwhile, places like Indonesia and Australia get less rainfall, along with drought and fire.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The weakening of the trade winds and westward flow of ocean currents in the Pacific has a second effect. Under non-El Niño circumstances, the trade winds carry the top layer of water to the west, and so water from deeper in the ocean moves up to take its place. This is called upwelling. The water from deep in the ocean is cold and full of nutrients, and it drives the fisheries along the coast of Chile and Peru. Without the trade winds and the upwelling, fisheries crash. A strong El Niño has big economic impacts, not all of which are negative; some agricultural areas are benefited by the extra rainfall, and people in places with unusually warm weather can save on heating bills. Of course, La Niña events have economic impacts too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As scientists learn more about predicting the climate during El Niños and La Niñas, we can plan accordingly and mitigate the economic impacts of these events. My comment about planning your ski vacation according to this year’s La Niña was a little bit serious! Rainfall predictions based on El Niño and La Niña models can help farmers decide which crops to plant. And, here in drought-prone California, La Niña precipitation predictions are influencing \u003ca href=\"http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-11-23/bay-area/24846235_1_water-year-state-hydrologists-water-agencies\">water allocation decisions\u003c/a> for the coming year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Ski resorts in the Lake Tahoe area received over 170 inches of snow throughout the weekend. But heavy snow and rain are not expected to continue in the Bay Area, because the world is experiencing a La Niña.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1443833783,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":655},"headData":{"title":"Living in La Niña | KQED","description":"Ski resorts in the Lake Tahoe area received over 170 inches of snow throughout the weekend. But heavy snow and rain are not expected to continue in the Bay Area, because the world is experiencing a La Niña.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"10828 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=10828","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/11/29/living-in-la-nina/","disqusTitle":"Living in La Niña","path":"/quest/10828/living-in-la-nina","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/westus_tmo_2010329_21.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Satellite image of the western United States, taken on Thanksgiving Day. Image: NASA.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>This Thanksgiving weekend, Bay Area skiers had a lot to be thankful for--ski resorts in the Lake Tahoe area received over 170 inches of snow throughout the weekend. But heavy snow and rain are not expected to continue in the Bay Area, because the world is experiencing a La Niña.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The defining sign of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.elnino.noaa.gov/lanina.html\">La Niña\u003c/a> is cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, near the equator. Cooler water evaporates less than warmer water, so there is less moisture in the air. This means that during a La Niña, there is less precipitation in some areas, like California and the southern United States. Other areas, like the Pacific Northwest, get more precipitation during a La Niña. (Book your winter ski trip strategically!)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/anomnight.current1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Sea surface temperature anomalies on November 25, 2010. The equatorial Pacific is cooler than usual (note the blue color), a characteristic of a La Nina event. Image: \u003ca href=\"http://www.elnino.noaa.gov/index.html\">NOAA\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>La Niña also affects air temperature. During a La Niña, the South is typically warmer, while Southern California and the Pacific Northwest are cooler. You can see \u003ca href=\"http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal.php?lead=1\">climate predictions\u003c/a> for the next three months, from the National Weather Service Climate Prediction Center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A La Niña is basically the opposite of an \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html\">El Niño\u003c/a>. El Niños are characterized by warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific. This happens when the atmospheric pressure system gets a bit out of whack. Usually there is high pressure over the Pacific Ocean and low pressure over the Indian Ocean—picture a see-saw anchored over New Zealand, with the heavy kid sitting on the end over Indonesia. For reasons we don’t quite understand, sometimes the see-saw tilts the other way—now the heavy kid is sitting in the southeastern Pacific, and the kid on the Indonesian side is way up in the air.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This swap in atmospheric pressure has quite a few consequences. The trade winds (which typically blow across the Pacific from the east to the west) get weaker. The water that the trade winds usually push westward instead piles up and moves east. This water is warm, and it evaporates, causing more rainfall along the west coast of South America. Meanwhile, places like Indonesia and Australia get less rainfall, along with drought and fire.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The weakening of the trade winds and westward flow of ocean currents in the Pacific has a second effect. Under non-El Niño circumstances, the trade winds carry the top layer of water to the west, and so water from deeper in the ocean moves up to take its place. This is called upwelling. The water from deep in the ocean is cold and full of nutrients, and it drives the fisheries along the coast of Chile and Peru. Without the trade winds and the upwelling, fisheries crash. A strong El Niño has big economic impacts, not all of which are negative; some agricultural areas are benefited by the extra rainfall, and people in places with unusually warm weather can save on heating bills. Of course, La Niña events have economic impacts too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As scientists learn more about predicting the climate during El Niños and La Niñas, we can plan accordingly and mitigate the economic impacts of these events. My comment about planning your ski vacation according to this year’s La Niña was a little bit serious! Rainfall predictions based on El Niño and La Niña models can help farmers decide which crops to plant. And, here in drought-prone California, La Niña precipitation predictions are influencing \u003ca href=\"http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-11-23/bay-area/24846235_1_water-year-state-hydrologists-water-agencies\">water allocation decisions\u003c/a> for the coming year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/10828/living-in-la-nina","authors":["10200"],"categories":["quest_6","quest_9"],"tags":["quest_13195","quest_944","quest_1002","quest_3351","quest_1591","quest_2141","quest_2349","quest_2363","quest_2682","quest_3108"],"featImg":"quest_10831","label":"quest"},"quest_983":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_983","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"983","score":null,"sort":[1229731051000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"snows-of-the-solar-system","title":"Snows of the Solar System","publishDate":1229731051,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/12/snow_domes.jpg\">\u003cem>Terrestrial snow at Chabot on December 16, 2008\u003cbr>\nPhoto by Craig Coryell\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Driving to work today, I was amused to notice that the raindrops falling on my windshield were a bit grainy--and getting more so the higher up the hill I drove. I starting to think, is it starting to sleet? By the time I reached Chabot--at 1500 feet elevation--the precipitation had turned to bona fide snow!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is quite unusual for the Oakland Hills, of course. In the ten years I've worked here, this is the second, maybe third, dusting I've witnessed. I recall the great freeze of '74, when it actually snowed in Oakland close to sea level---that's the year all the eucalyptus in the hills froze and died. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My mind wandered---pretty far out in space (an occupational hazard at Chabot). I started thinking about all the recent news and discoveries from around the Solar System, my thoughts guided by the fat white flakes drifting down all around the observatory domes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last September, NASA's Mars Phoenix Lander detected \u003ca href=\"http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=080930172328.49u1qw9x&show_article=1\">snow falling high in the atmosphere\u003c/a>--about 4 kilometers high. This Martian snow, however, quickly evaporated in Mars' thin, dry air, never reaching the ground. Phoenix used a laser probe to make the detection--so we don't actually have picture to look at!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Snows of the Solar System may also fall out of the plumes of \u003ca href=\"http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-cryovolcano.htm\">\"cryovolcanoes\"\u003c/a>--the frigid outer Solar System's version of volcanism (may it live long and prosper). On moons such as Saturn's Enceladus and Neptune's Triton, plumes of material have been detected spouting from fissures and cracks--probably fueled by heat generated by tidal forces from their parent planets. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2008/12/15/enceladus/\">Enceladus\u003c/a>, the geyser plumes contain water vapor and ice crystals, and are believed to come from subsurface lakes of \"warm\" water (32 degrees Fahrenheit--in other words, ice water… but that's a veritable hot spring, or magma chamber, on a cold moon like Enceladus!). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ice crystals in the geysers' plumes mostly fall back to Enceladus--maybe in a diffuse fall of \"snow\" across the globe? I'm waiting for those pictures…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saturn's large moon Titan is speculated to possibly have a form of \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050610.html\">cryvolcanism\u003c/a>, though no direct detection has yet been made. Still, any water vapor that might erupt from a Titanian cryovolcano might be expected to fall in a form of snow….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/triton.htm\">Triton\u003c/a>, much farther from the Sun than Saturn, is even colder than Enceladus. In fact, it's been called the coldest measured surface in the Solar System, at -391 degrees Fahrenheit. Here, nitrogen freezes solid. Triton cryovolcanoes, or geysers, may be partially solar-heated, but tidal heating within Triton is probably dominant. Triton's geysers spout nitrogen gas and dark material, which falls across the landscape in dark streaks and lighter deposits of frozen nitrogen--a form of extreme cryo-snow, to my imagination! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, are you as cold as I am just thinking about it? Time for a cup of cocoa…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Snow is quite unusual for the Oakland Hills. Is snow so unusual for the rest of the solar system?","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371079439,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":13,"wordCount":514},"headData":{"title":"Snows of the Solar System | KQED","description":"Snow is quite unusual for the Oakland Hills. Is snow so unusual for the rest of the solar system?","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"983 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=983","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/12/19/snows-of-the-solar-system/","disqusTitle":"Snows of the Solar System","path":"/quest/983/snows-of-the-solar-system","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/12/snow_domes.jpg\">\u003cem>Terrestrial snow at Chabot on December 16, 2008\u003cbr>\nPhoto by Craig Coryell\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Driving to work today, I was amused to notice that the raindrops falling on my windshield were a bit grainy--and getting more so the higher up the hill I drove. I starting to think, is it starting to sleet? By the time I reached Chabot--at 1500 feet elevation--the precipitation had turned to bona fide snow!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is quite unusual for the Oakland Hills, of course. In the ten years I've worked here, this is the second, maybe third, dusting I've witnessed. I recall the great freeze of '74, when it actually snowed in Oakland close to sea level---that's the year all the eucalyptus in the hills froze and died. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My mind wandered---pretty far out in space (an occupational hazard at Chabot). I started thinking about all the recent news and discoveries from around the Solar System, my thoughts guided by the fat white flakes drifting down all around the observatory domes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last September, NASA's Mars Phoenix Lander detected \u003ca href=\"http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=080930172328.49u1qw9x&show_article=1\">snow falling high in the atmosphere\u003c/a>--about 4 kilometers high. This Martian snow, however, quickly evaporated in Mars' thin, dry air, never reaching the ground. Phoenix used a laser probe to make the detection--so we don't actually have picture to look at!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Snows of the Solar System may also fall out of the plumes of \u003ca href=\"http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-cryovolcano.htm\">\"cryovolcanoes\"\u003c/a>--the frigid outer Solar System's version of volcanism (may it live long and prosper). On moons such as Saturn's Enceladus and Neptune's Triton, plumes of material have been detected spouting from fissures and cracks--probably fueled by heat generated by tidal forces from their parent planets. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2008/12/15/enceladus/\">Enceladus\u003c/a>, the geyser plumes contain water vapor and ice crystals, and are believed to come from subsurface lakes of \"warm\" water (32 degrees Fahrenheit--in other words, ice water… but that's a veritable hot spring, or magma chamber, on a cold moon like Enceladus!). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ice crystals in the geysers' plumes mostly fall back to Enceladus--maybe in a diffuse fall of \"snow\" across the globe? I'm waiting for those pictures…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saturn's large moon Titan is speculated to possibly have a form of \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050610.html\">cryvolcanism\u003c/a>, though no direct detection has yet been made. Still, any water vapor that might erupt from a Titanian cryovolcano might be expected to fall in a form of snow….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/triton.htm\">Triton\u003c/a>, much farther from the Sun than Saturn, is even colder than Enceladus. In fact, it's been called the coldest measured surface in the Solar System, at -391 degrees Fahrenheit. Here, nitrogen freezes solid. Triton cryovolcanoes, or geysers, may be partially solar-heated, but tidal heating within Triton is probably dominant. Triton's geysers spout nitrogen gas and dark material, which falls across the landscape in dark streaks and lighter deposits of frozen nitrogen--a form of extreme cryo-snow, to my imagination! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, are you as cold as I am just thinking about it? Time for a cup of cocoa…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/983/snows-of-the-solar-system","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_6"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_546","quest_736","quest_975","quest_3351","quest_1751","quest_1755","quest_1918","quest_2024","quest_2349","quest_2682","quest_2998"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. 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Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. 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You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn","officialWebsiteLink":"/mindshift/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"2"},"link":"/podcasts/mindshift","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/0MxSpNYZKNprFLCl7eEtyx"}},"morning-edition":{"id":"morning-edition","title":"Morning Edition","info":"\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.","airtime":"MON-FRI 3am-9am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Morning-Edition-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.npr.org/programs/morning-edition/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/morning-edition"},"onourwatch":{"id":"onourwatch","title":"On Our Watch","tagline":"Police secrets, unsealed","info":"For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. 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