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He graduated from Sonoma State University in 1985 with a bachelor’s degree in physics (and minor in astronomy), after which he signed on for a two-year stint in the Peace Corps, where he taught physics and mathematics in the African nation of Cameroon. From 1989-96 he served on the crew of NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory at Ames Research Center in Mountain View, CA. 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The nail-biting landing procedure had been called the “\u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/video/index.cfm?id=1090\">Seven Minutes of Terror\u003c/a>,” based on how long it took the lander to cut its speed from 13 thousand miles an hour… to zero.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For scientists at NASA Ames in Moffet Field, the work is just beginning. NASA Ames senior scientist David Blake designed CheMin, one of the scientific instruments that hitched a ride to Mars aboard Curiosity. \u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/instruments/spectrometers/chemin/\">CheMin\u003c/a>, short for Chemistry & Mineralogy, uses x-ray diffraction to analyze soil and rock samples that the nuclear-powered rover will collect as it explores the Martian surface. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That data, which will be transmitted back to Earth, may help scientists solve one of the Red Planet’s most compelling mysteries: whether water once flowed over its now-parched surface. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The mission is expected to last two years, but could go on much longer, depending on Curiosity’s life span. The lander can meander up to 12 miles over the Martian surface, with a speed limit of about 300 feet per hour. All the while, Curiosity’s 17 cameras are designed to stream images back to Earth of what it finds.\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nKQED News anchor Joshua Johnson spoke with NASA’s David Blake just hours after the landing.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003cem>\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Good morning!\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake: \u003c/strong>Good morning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Congratulations, first of all. I’m sure you were up all night watching the landing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well, yeah, to say it was exciting is an understatement. You know once the vehicle hit the atmosphere of Mars, and things went so fast, it was almost like your brain couldn’t follow, and when those first thumbnails came down, it was just pandemonium. Everybody just erupted and started screaming and hugging each other. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> I imagine that seven minutes started to feel like seven seconds as the time slowed down. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> It was amazing, and the control room was live saying ‘OK the heat shield has been released. OK the parachute has been deployed. The sky crane is operating.’ It was just unbelievable. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> So tell me a little bit about where Curiosity landed? Why did you choose this particular spot? And did the lander hit its mark?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well, we think it did. We don’t know exactly where it landed but its certain it landed within the ellipse. Gale Crater is one of the oldest and deepest craters on Mars and we know that very early on Mars’ time it filled to the brim with sediment and that sediment solidified to make a rock and then later on a lot of that sediment was eroded out by wind and we are left with this big mountain in the middle called, we call it Mount Sharp. And Mount Sharp is 5,000 meters of stratify sediment and the geologist can basically read this like a book, so we are going to start from the bottom and work our way up and this will tell us a lot about the conditions of very early Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> It sounds like, to put this in some perspective, it’s almost like landing this device at the bottom of the Grand Canyon. Is what it sounds like. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Yeah, it is very similar, similar distance down, actually greater distance of strata. And so the rover planners have actually figured out, they figured this out from pictures long ago, long ago being months, where we are going to go if we land where we say we did and going up in a canyon and to the left and to the right So they have the plans of where to go already done.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Here in the Bay Area it sounds like scientists worked on one aspect of the lander, in particular called CheMin. Describe what CheMin is and how it works?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well CheMin is one of two laboratory quality instruments that’s inside the body of the rover, and what CheMin does is it determines the mineralogy of all the sediments, or the drilled rock, that is delivered to it by the arm of the rover. And the interesting thing about minerals is that, if you know the minerals that are present in a rock, you can say what the environment was in which the rock formed. And so, what CheMin will do is it will tell you the conditions of formation of these rocks that are 3.5 – 4 billion years old in Gale Crater on Mount Sharp.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> And that would also include if there was once water there, right?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well, that’s exactly right. We know from orbital assets that like the CRISM instrument on Mars’ reconnaissance orbiter that there are hydrated minerals, such as clays and hydrated sulfates, that are present where we are. And these hydrated minerals, we will be able to tell them with CheMin very easily. And these hydrated minerals tell us that there very likely was a habitable environment – that is, an environment where life could have begun or could have persisted over time very early in Mars history. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Let’s finish with the two big questions, how soon do we see results and how soon do we send people to Mars?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> We are going to get pictures back really continuously starting last night and certainly today. My instrument would not really deliver a result for probably three weeks to a month, and the reason being is that engineers are testing everything out, and we are kind of in the last of a first time use series. So by the time everything is checked out and the arm and the drill, then they will deliver a sample to us. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> And in terms of sending people to Mars? That’s a long ways off I imagine. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> That’s kind of at the end of the chart. We are a step along the way. That’s just a huge challenge even compared to this, which was, to me, other worldly. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Well it’s incredible that you got this far. Congratulations, David Blake is senior scientist at NASA AMES, in Moffett Field. Thank you for talking with us, and again, congratulations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well thank you. It was very enjoyable. \u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>More Pictures of Curiosity Lander and Landing Site\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41810\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/MtSharp_insideGayleCrater.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Destination: Gale Crater (photo: NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-41810\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/MtSharp_insideGayleCrater.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/MtSharp_insideGayleCrater-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Curiosity will land near the foot of Mt. Sharp, inside Gale Crater. Over its two-year mission, Curiosity will explore the crater and mountain to investigate whether this area of Mars has ever offered conditions favorable for life.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41811\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-in-profile.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"The Curiosity rover in profile (Photo: NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-41811\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-in-profile.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-in-profile-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">About the size of a small SUV, NASA's Curiosity rover has six-wheel drive and the ability to turn in place a full 360 degrees, as well as the agility to climb steep hills. \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41812\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-cameras.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Rover cameras ( photo: NASA/JPL-Caltech)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-41812\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-cameras.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-cameras-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Curiosity is equipped with 17 cameras, and the capability to send high-definition images of the Martian surface back to Earth. \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"NASA's Curiosity lander has ended its 352 million-mile journey, landing safely on the surface of Mars. For scientists at NASA Ames in Moffet Field, the work is just beginning. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1684973758,"stats":{"hasAudio":true,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":29,"wordCount":1205},"headData":{"title":"NASA's Mars Lander: The Exploration Begins | KQED","description":"NASA's Curiosity lander has ended its 352 million-mile journey, landing safely on the surface of Mars. For scientists at NASA Ames in Moffet Field, the work is just beginning. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"NASA's Mars Lander: The Exploration Begins","datePublished":"2012-08-06T18:30:10.000Z","dateModified":"2023-05-25T00:15:58.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"templateType":"standard","featuredImageType":"standard","excludeFromSiteSearch":"Include","articleAge":"0","path":"/quest/41786/nasas-mars-lander-the-exploration-begins","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/08/2012-08-06-quest.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/08/2012-08-06-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/PIA15791_modest.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/PIA15791_modest-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover (photo courtesy NASA)\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-41804\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Late Sunday night, scientists at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena cheered as the Curiosity lander ended its 352 million-mile journey, arriving – intact – onto the surface of Mars. The nail-biting landing procedure had been called the “\u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/video/index.cfm?id=1090\">Seven Minutes of Terror\u003c/a>,” based on how long it took the lander to cut its speed from 13 thousand miles an hour… to zero.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For scientists at NASA Ames in Moffet Field, the work is just beginning. NASA Ames senior scientist David Blake designed CheMin, one of the scientific instruments that hitched a ride to Mars aboard Curiosity. \u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/instruments/spectrometers/chemin/\">CheMin\u003c/a>, short for Chemistry & Mineralogy, uses x-ray diffraction to analyze soil and rock samples that the nuclear-powered rover will collect as it explores the Martian surface. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That data, which will be transmitted back to Earth, may help scientists solve one of the Red Planet’s most compelling mysteries: whether water once flowed over its now-parched surface. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The mission is expected to last two years, but could go on much longer, depending on Curiosity’s life span. The lander can meander up to 12 miles over the Martian surface, with a speed limit of about 300 feet per hour. All the while, Curiosity’s 17 cameras are designed to stream images back to Earth of what it finds.\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nKQED News anchor Joshua Johnson spoke with NASA’s David Blake just hours after the landing.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003cem>\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Good morning!\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake: \u003c/strong>Good morning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Congratulations, first of all. I’m sure you were up all night watching the landing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well, yeah, to say it was exciting is an understatement. You know once the vehicle hit the atmosphere of Mars, and things went so fast, it was almost like your brain couldn’t follow, and when those first thumbnails came down, it was just pandemonium. Everybody just erupted and started screaming and hugging each other. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> I imagine that seven minutes started to feel like seven seconds as the time slowed down. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> It was amazing, and the control room was live saying ‘OK the heat shield has been released. OK the parachute has been deployed. The sky crane is operating.’ It was just unbelievable. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> So tell me a little bit about where Curiosity landed? Why did you choose this particular spot? And did the lander hit its mark?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well, we think it did. We don’t know exactly where it landed but its certain it landed within the ellipse. Gale Crater is one of the oldest and deepest craters on Mars and we know that very early on Mars’ time it filled to the brim with sediment and that sediment solidified to make a rock and then later on a lot of that sediment was eroded out by wind and we are left with this big mountain in the middle called, we call it Mount Sharp. And Mount Sharp is 5,000 meters of stratify sediment and the geologist can basically read this like a book, so we are going to start from the bottom and work our way up and this will tell us a lot about the conditions of very early Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> It sounds like, to put this in some perspective, it’s almost like landing this device at the bottom of the Grand Canyon. Is what it sounds like. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Yeah, it is very similar, similar distance down, actually greater distance of strata. And so the rover planners have actually figured out, they figured this out from pictures long ago, long ago being months, where we are going to go if we land where we say we did and going up in a canyon and to the left and to the right So they have the plans of where to go already done.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Here in the Bay Area it sounds like scientists worked on one aspect of the lander, in particular called CheMin. Describe what CheMin is and how it works?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well CheMin is one of two laboratory quality instruments that’s inside the body of the rover, and what CheMin does is it determines the mineralogy of all the sediments, or the drilled rock, that is delivered to it by the arm of the rover. And the interesting thing about minerals is that, if you know the minerals that are present in a rock, you can say what the environment was in which the rock formed. And so, what CheMin will do is it will tell you the conditions of formation of these rocks that are 3.5 – 4 billion years old in Gale Crater on Mount Sharp.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> And that would also include if there was once water there, right?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well, that’s exactly right. We know from orbital assets that like the CRISM instrument on Mars’ reconnaissance orbiter that there are hydrated minerals, such as clays and hydrated sulfates, that are present where we are. And these hydrated minerals, we will be able to tell them with CheMin very easily. And these hydrated minerals tell us that there very likely was a habitable environment – that is, an environment where life could have begun or could have persisted over time very early in Mars history. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Let’s finish with the two big questions, how soon do we see results and how soon do we send people to Mars?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> We are going to get pictures back really continuously starting last night and certainly today. My instrument would not really deliver a result for probably three weeks to a month, and the reason being is that engineers are testing everything out, and we are kind of in the last of a first time use series. So by the time everything is checked out and the arm and the drill, then they will deliver a sample to us. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> And in terms of sending people to Mars? That’s a long ways off I imagine. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> That’s kind of at the end of the chart. We are a step along the way. That’s just a huge challenge even compared to this, which was, to me, other worldly. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Johnson:\u003c/strong> Well it’s incredible that you got this far. Congratulations, David Blake is senior scientist at NASA AMES, in Moffett Field. Thank you for talking with us, and again, congratulations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Blake:\u003c/strong> Well thank you. It was very enjoyable. \u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>More Pictures of Curiosity Lander and Landing Site\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41810\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/MtSharp_insideGayleCrater.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Destination: Gale Crater (photo: NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-41810\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/MtSharp_insideGayleCrater.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/MtSharp_insideGayleCrater-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Curiosity will land near the foot of Mt. Sharp, inside Gale Crater. Over its two-year mission, Curiosity will explore the crater and mountain to investigate whether this area of Mars has ever offered conditions favorable for life.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41811\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-in-profile.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"The Curiosity rover in profile (Photo: NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-41811\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-in-profile.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-in-profile-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">About the size of a small SUV, NASA's Curiosity rover has six-wheel drive and the ability to turn in place a full 360 degrees, as well as the agility to climb steep hills. \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41812\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-cameras.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Rover cameras ( photo: NASA/JPL-Caltech)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-41812\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-cameras.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Rover-cameras-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Curiosity is equipped with 17 cameras, and the capability to send high-definition images of the Martian surface back to Earth. \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/41786/nasas-mars-lander-the-exploration-begins","authors":["210"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_8"],"tags":["quest_237","quest_252","quest_11326","quest_742","quest_3539","quest_1606","quest_1751","quest_1918","quest_13203","quest_13"],"featImg":"quest_41804","label":"quest"},"quest_4804":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_4804","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"4804","score":null,"sort":[1263574821000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"martian-robot-roundup","title":"Martian Robot Roundup","publishDate":1263574821,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/01/MRO-gullies.jpg\">\u003cem>Gullies in wall of Hale Crater. Credit: NASA/MRO\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Out of about \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/log/\">40 robotic missions \u003c/a>launched toward Mars since the early 1960's, about 17 of them have been successful (I say \"about\" to hedge my bets, because the \"success\" of some of those missions is a bit gray), and of all of those, three orbiters, two rovers, and maybe—MAYbe—one lander are still active. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's a quick status on the active ones: \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/\">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\u003c/a>: The most recent arrival at Mars (2006), MRO's 5-year mission (hmmm—sound vaguely familiar?) is to study the history of water and climate on Mars, as well as to serve as a telecommunications relay for other spacecraft. Armed with a suite of powerful instruments to study the atmosphere, surface, and subsurface of Mars—including a camera, \u003ca href=\"http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/katalogos.php\">HiRISE\u003c/a>, that can almost read the license plates on Martian automobiles—MRO has to date sent back more data than all other Mars missions combined. It's not been a glitchless flight, however: in 2009, MRO's computer reset itself four times for unknown reasons; the last reset, in August, was followed by a 4-month operational hiatus as Earth-side controllers performed some careful programming updates to help guard against effects of any future resets. MRO resumed operation in December. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/\">Mars Odyssey 2001\u003c/a>: NASA's 2001 Odyssey is still going fine after nine years—although the computer glitchiness out around Mars seems to be catching: Odyssey's computer put itself into a safe mode last November 2009 in response to a memory error. This was corrected and Odyssey has resumed doing science. Among Odyssey's major discoveries was the detection of huge expanses of water ice just under the surface of polar lowlands, and the surveying of \u003ca href=\"http://uanews.org/node/22563\">deposits of water-related minerals \u003c/a>in various locations around the planet. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=9\">Mars Express\u003c/a>: Arriving at Mars in 2004, Mars Express became the European Space Agency's first mission to another planet, which was recently extended to 2012. Though the Beagle 2 lander component of the mission fell to Mars and was never heard from again, the Mars Express orbiter has sent back years of captivating images and important data, including the confirmation of methane in Mars' atmosphere (whose source is in all likelihood subsurface, and the origin of which—organic or inorganic processes—is being debated). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity: After six years of crawling around Meridiani Planum discovering chemical and geological evidence for past water on Mars, Opportunity is now on a long march to a large impact crater, which it will reach (if it can keep on running) in about two years. Currently, the rover has stopped to RAT out chemical and geological information from a rock called \u003ca href=\"http://marsrover.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20091125a.html\">Marquette Island\u003c/a>—the RAT is its rock abrasion tool, or rock grinder. Still going….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsrover.nasa.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/20091231a.html\">Mars Exploration Rover Spirit\u003c/a>: Also still alive after six years—almost 25 times longer than it was planned to run—Spirit has been stuck in a sand bog for the last six months. With a couple of wheels on the fritz, Earth-side operators have been confounded in trying to free the robot—but Spirit has continued to make scientific measurements anyway…and in fact made a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/12/18/spirit-digs-a-little-deeper-into-martian-geology/\">significant discovery \u003c/a>in the course of trying to get unstuck. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/phoenix/main/index.html\">Phoenix lander\u003c/a>: Although it's been in the deep dark freeze of a Martian winter since November 2008, the Phoenix lander has an outside chance of survival. Now that light is returning to Phoenix's landing site, NASA is listening for the robot's radio signal, in case the return of solar power means that Phoenix will rise from the frost and live again! So far, no such signal….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next up: The \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/\">Mars Science Laboratory \u003c/a>rover, \"Curiosity.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Out of about 17 successul Mars missions, three orbiters, two rovers, and maybe—MAYbe—one lander are still active.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371077606,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":12,"wordCount":642},"headData":{"title":"Martian Robot Roundup | KQED","description":"Out of about 17 successul Mars missions, three orbiters, two rovers, and maybe—MAYbe—one lander are still active.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Martian Robot Roundup","datePublished":"2010-01-15T17:00:21.000Z","dateModified":"2013-06-12T22:53:26.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"4804 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=4804","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/01/15/martian-robot-roundup/","disqusTitle":"Martian Robot Roundup","path":"/quest/4804/martian-robot-roundup","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/01/MRO-gullies.jpg\">\u003cem>Gullies in wall of Hale Crater. Credit: NASA/MRO\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Out of about \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/log/\">40 robotic missions \u003c/a>launched toward Mars since the early 1960's, about 17 of them have been successful (I say \"about\" to hedge my bets, because the \"success\" of some of those missions is a bit gray), and of all of those, three orbiters, two rovers, and maybe—MAYbe—one lander are still active. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's a quick status on the active ones: \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/\">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\u003c/a>: The most recent arrival at Mars (2006), MRO's 5-year mission (hmmm—sound vaguely familiar?) is to study the history of water and climate on Mars, as well as to serve as a telecommunications relay for other spacecraft. Armed with a suite of powerful instruments to study the atmosphere, surface, and subsurface of Mars—including a camera, \u003ca href=\"http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/katalogos.php\">HiRISE\u003c/a>, that can almost read the license plates on Martian automobiles—MRO has to date sent back more data than all other Mars missions combined. It's not been a glitchless flight, however: in 2009, MRO's computer reset itself four times for unknown reasons; the last reset, in August, was followed by a 4-month operational hiatus as Earth-side controllers performed some careful programming updates to help guard against effects of any future resets. MRO resumed operation in December. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/\">Mars Odyssey 2001\u003c/a>: NASA's 2001 Odyssey is still going fine after nine years—although the computer glitchiness out around Mars seems to be catching: Odyssey's computer put itself into a safe mode last November 2009 in response to a memory error. This was corrected and Odyssey has resumed doing science. Among Odyssey's major discoveries was the detection of huge expanses of water ice just under the surface of polar lowlands, and the surveying of \u003ca href=\"http://uanews.org/node/22563\">deposits of water-related minerals \u003c/a>in various locations around the planet. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=9\">Mars Express\u003c/a>: Arriving at Mars in 2004, Mars Express became the European Space Agency's first mission to another planet, which was recently extended to 2012. Though the Beagle 2 lander component of the mission fell to Mars and was never heard from again, the Mars Express orbiter has sent back years of captivating images and important data, including the confirmation of methane in Mars' atmosphere (whose source is in all likelihood subsurface, and the origin of which—organic or inorganic processes—is being debated). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity: After six years of crawling around Meridiani Planum discovering chemical and geological evidence for past water on Mars, Opportunity is now on a long march to a large impact crater, which it will reach (if it can keep on running) in about two years. Currently, the rover has stopped to RAT out chemical and geological information from a rock called \u003ca href=\"http://marsrover.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20091125a.html\">Marquette Island\u003c/a>—the RAT is its rock abrasion tool, or rock grinder. Still going….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsrover.nasa.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/20091231a.html\">Mars Exploration Rover Spirit\u003c/a>: Also still alive after six years—almost 25 times longer than it was planned to run—Spirit has been stuck in a sand bog for the last six months. With a couple of wheels on the fritz, Earth-side operators have been confounded in trying to free the robot—but Spirit has continued to make scientific measurements anyway…and in fact made a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/12/18/spirit-digs-a-little-deeper-into-martian-geology/\">significant discovery \u003c/a>in the course of trying to get unstuck. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/phoenix/main/index.html\">Phoenix lander\u003c/a>: Although it's been in the deep dark freeze of a Martian winter since November 2008, the Phoenix lander has an outside chance of survival. Now that light is returning to Phoenix's landing site, NASA is listening for the robot's radio signal, in case the return of solar power means that Phoenix will rise from the frost and live again! So far, no such signal….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next up: The \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/\">Mars Science Laboratory \u003c/a>rover, \"Curiosity.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/4804/martian-robot-roundup","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3"],"tags":["quest_1019","quest_1046","quest_1606","quest_1751","quest_1918","quest_2053","quest_2079","quest_2085","quest_2384","quest_2457","quest_2760"],"label":"quest"},"quest_927":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_927","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"927","score":null,"sort":[1226106528000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"last-gasps-from-phoenix","title":"Last Gasps from Phoenix?","publishDate":1226106528,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/11/phoenix-mars-lander.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Artist concept of the Phoenix lander,\u003cbr>\nsleeping under the darkening polar skies of Martian autumn.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It seems like only last month that we witnessed the drama of NASA's Phoenix landing on Mars. We were on the edge of our seats in Chabot's planetarium during those \"seven minutes of terror\" as Phoenix burned a meteoric path through Mars' atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But that was last May, and Phoenix has operated near Mars' northern polar ice cap going on six months now! The mission has continued a couple months longer than originally planned, giving Phoenix more time to dig in the icy soil, bake scooped up samples to detect what chemicals sublimate, track the polar weather day and night, and look to the skies with its various instruments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix sent back some very interesting news. Indeed, it had landed on what turned out to be dust-coated water ice; ice that contains chemicals like calcite and \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/080804-phoenix-perchlorate.html\">perchlorate\u003c/a>-- the former of which may indicate past liquid water on Mars, the latter of which, however, is generally toxic, and may complicate arguments for life, past or present, on Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the more \"fanciful\" detections by Phoenix was \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/phoenix/news/phoenix-20080929.html\">falling snow\u003c/a>: two or three miles above, Phoenix detected ice crystals falling from clouds-- albeit flakes that never made it to the ground, instead evaporating like Earthly virga back into the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Phoenix’s mission has a built-in conclusion (unlike the seemingly perpetual Energizer Bunnies exploring the Martian tropics, aka the Mars Exploration Rovers). Phoenix landed at 68 degrees north latitude-- that’s equivalent on Earth to the north coast of Alaska, Norway, or south central Greenland-- prior to Martian northern summer solstice (which was June 25). As with Earthly summertime, the polar days were unending, the Sun above the horizon 24 hours a day (yes, Mars' day is about 24 hours long, just as on Earth). This provided Phoenix with its electrical power, generated by photovoltaic panels. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But now the Sun is dipping below the horizon several hours a day as the Martian northern hemisphere slides in the direction of autumnal equinox (December 26, 2008), at which time the Sun will spend half the time below the horizon, the other half never rising very high. Already, Phoenix's solar panels are generating considerably less power than in the heyday of its mission. A \u003ca href=\"http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/video/Sol_139/phx_enhanced_137_1F7D0.gif\">dust storm\u003c/a>, filling the air and blocking some of the already weak sunlight, has also cut available power to the lander for a time in October.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The diminishing conditions also caused Phoenix to put itself into an automatic \"sleep\" mode in late October, waking up for only a short time each day, when solar energy was at a peak. To give a flavor of the temperatures Phoenix is enduring, on Sol 151 (the 151\u003csup>st\u003c/sup> Martian day since landing-October 27\u003csup>th\u003c/sup>, Earth time), the daily high reached a balmy 50.8 degrees F-\u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">negative\u003c/span> 50.8 that is! The night time low hit -128 degrees F... .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With every day possibly being the last we hear from Phoenix, scientists are collecting as much data as possible, mostly focusing on meteorological conditions. \u003cem>Reporting from the Martian polar ice cap, as the icy darkness of winter begins to settle in, this is Phoenix Lander, signing off....\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"It seems like only last month that we witnessed the drama of NASA's Phoenix landing on Mars. We were on the edge of our seats in Chabot's planetarium during those \"seven minutes of terror\" as Phoenix burned a meteoric path through Mars' atmosphere.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371079557,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":550},"headData":{"title":"Last Gasps from Phoenix? | KQED","description":"It seems like only last month that we witnessed the drama of NASA's Phoenix landing on Mars. We were on the edge of our seats in Chabot's planetarium during those "seven minutes of terror" as Phoenix burned a meteoric path through Mars' atmosphere.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Last Gasps from Phoenix?","datePublished":"2008-11-08T01:08:48.000Z","dateModified":"2013-06-12T23:25:57.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"927 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=927","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/11/07/last-gasps-from-phoenix/","disqusTitle":"Last Gasps from Phoenix?","path":"/quest/927/last-gasps-from-phoenix","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/11/phoenix-mars-lander.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Artist concept of the Phoenix lander,\u003cbr>\nsleeping under the darkening polar skies of Martian autumn.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It seems like only last month that we witnessed the drama of NASA's Phoenix landing on Mars. We were on the edge of our seats in Chabot's planetarium during those \"seven minutes of terror\" as Phoenix burned a meteoric path through Mars' atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But that was last May, and Phoenix has operated near Mars' northern polar ice cap going on six months now! The mission has continued a couple months longer than originally planned, giving Phoenix more time to dig in the icy soil, bake scooped up samples to detect what chemicals sublimate, track the polar weather day and night, and look to the skies with its various instruments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix sent back some very interesting news. Indeed, it had landed on what turned out to be dust-coated water ice; ice that contains chemicals like calcite and \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/080804-phoenix-perchlorate.html\">perchlorate\u003c/a>-- the former of which may indicate past liquid water on Mars, the latter of which, however, is generally toxic, and may complicate arguments for life, past or present, on Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the more \"fanciful\" detections by Phoenix was \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/phoenix/news/phoenix-20080929.html\">falling snow\u003c/a>: two or three miles above, Phoenix detected ice crystals falling from clouds-- albeit flakes that never made it to the ground, instead evaporating like Earthly virga back into the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Phoenix’s mission has a built-in conclusion (unlike the seemingly perpetual Energizer Bunnies exploring the Martian tropics, aka the Mars Exploration Rovers). Phoenix landed at 68 degrees north latitude-- that’s equivalent on Earth to the north coast of Alaska, Norway, or south central Greenland-- prior to Martian northern summer solstice (which was June 25). As with Earthly summertime, the polar days were unending, the Sun above the horizon 24 hours a day (yes, Mars' day is about 24 hours long, just as on Earth). This provided Phoenix with its electrical power, generated by photovoltaic panels. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But now the Sun is dipping below the horizon several hours a day as the Martian northern hemisphere slides in the direction of autumnal equinox (December 26, 2008), at which time the Sun will spend half the time below the horizon, the other half never rising very high. Already, Phoenix's solar panels are generating considerably less power than in the heyday of its mission. A \u003ca href=\"http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/video/Sol_139/phx_enhanced_137_1F7D0.gif\">dust storm\u003c/a>, filling the air and blocking some of the already weak sunlight, has also cut available power to the lander for a time in October.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The diminishing conditions also caused Phoenix to put itself into an automatic \"sleep\" mode in late October, waking up for only a short time each day, when solar energy was at a peak. To give a flavor of the temperatures Phoenix is enduring, on Sol 151 (the 151\u003csup>st\u003c/sup> Martian day since landing-October 27\u003csup>th\u003c/sup>, Earth time), the daily high reached a balmy 50.8 degrees F-\u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">negative\u003c/span> 50.8 that is! The night time low hit -128 degrees F... .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With every day possibly being the last we hear from Phoenix, scientists are collecting as much data as possible, mostly focusing on meteorological conditions. \u003cem>Reporting from the Martian polar ice cap, as the icy darkness of winter begins to settle in, this is Phoenix Lander, signing off....\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/927/last-gasps-from-phoenix","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3"],"tags":["quest_432","quest_1438","quest_1606","quest_1751","quest_1757","quest_1918","quest_2152","quest_2181","quest_2700","quest_3079","quest_3108"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. 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Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.","airtime":"THU 10pm, FRI 1am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Commonwealth Club of California"},"link":"/radio/program/commonwealth-club","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Commonwealth-Club-of-California-p1060/"}},"considerthis":{"id":"considerthis","title":"Consider This","tagline":"Make sense of the day","info":"Make sense of the day. Every weekday afternoon, Consider This helps you consider the major stories of the day in less than 15 minutes, featuring the reporting and storytelling resources of NPR. 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