IBM's Watson Computer and the Future of Artificial Intelligence
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The ancient Mayans and Aztecs even used the pods of the cacao tree, which produces chocolate, as currency. They also used cacao as a tonic to improve overall health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72953\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72953 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript. Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript.\u003cbr> Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today’s scientists agree with the ancients: chocolate, in small doses, is not just delicious -- \u003ca href=\"http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/healthy-chocolate/faq-20058044\">it’s actually good for you\u003c/a>. This is particularly true of dark chocolate, which is rich in compounds called flavanols. Also found in red wine, tea and berries, \u003ca href=\"http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/flavonoids-good-for-3158.html\">flavanols have an antioxidant effect\u003c/a>, reducing cell damage and heart disease. Research also strongly suggests that they support healthy blood pressure and reduce the chances of strokes and heart attacks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re really good at really scavenging or sopping up these free radicals that can damage your cells,” said Mary Engler, a senior clinician and training director at the National Institutes of Health, NINR, in Bethesda, MD. Engler has studied the health effects of chocolate and other flavonols since 2001.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72949\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 282px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-72949\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800-282x169.jpg\" alt=\"Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day. Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\" width=\"282\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day.\u003cbr>Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Pregnant women should take special note: Regular intake of chocolate -- the darker the better -- during pregnancy appears to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901253/\">lower the risk of pre-eclampsia\u003c/a>, a dangerous complication. A 2013 study at the University of Helsinki, Finland also showed that \u003ca href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3604275.stm\">women who eat chocolate every day during pregnancy report calmer, happier babies\u003c/a> six months after giving birth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Milk and white chocolate lovers, you're out of luck: you’ll get all the butter, fat, and sugar, but \u003ca href=\"http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS014067360761873X/fulltext\">no circulation-boosting flavanols\u003c/a>. Even dark chocolate is rich and should be eaten in moderation, and beware: some manufacturers artificially darken their product and remove the bitter cacao solids, which contain the healthy compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72948\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72948 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Scientist hope that advanced genomics will help to minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree. Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists are using advanced genomics to help minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree.\u003cbr> Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As beloved as it is, it’s not surprising that chocolate is an important crop for farmers around the world. Roughly 70 percent of cacao is produced in equatorial Africa, where two million small-scale farms depend on the crop. But cocoa production has long suffered from serious losses due to pests, drought and diseases. A third of the cocoa produced in Africa -- $800 million’s worth -- is lost each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fortunately, there’s relief in sight for cacao farmers and the consumers who depend on them. In 2010, scientists at the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service and universities partnered with IBM and the candy company Mars to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">se\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">quence the genome of cacao\u003c/a>, in order to help identify the markers of a more sustainable crop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72947\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72947 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800-280x169.jpg\" alt=\"A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\" width=\"280\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cacao genome sequence has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.cacaogenomedb.org/\">released for free on the internet\u003c/a>, where it can be accessed by researchers who can use it to improve cacao breeding techniques. Farmers can also use the cacao database to select the breeds that will flourish best under changing local conditions. And that’s sweet news for the future of one of the world’s favorite treats.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Everybody loves chocolate, but did you know that small daily doses of dark chocolate are good for your health? Read the story and watch the video to learn about the precision engineering and chemistry behind the beloved treat. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1442634495,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":612},"headData":{"title":"The Sweet Science of Chocolate | KQED","description":"","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"17484 http://science.kqed.org/quest/video/the-sweet-science-of-chocolate/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2014/11/13/the-sweet-science-of-chocolate/","disqusTitle":"The Sweet Science of Chocolate","videoEmbed":"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WUwaidNGXaM?feature=player_detailpage","path":"/quest/17484/the-sweet-science-of-chocolate","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>This video story was originally produced by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennyoh/\">Jenny Oh\u003c/a> and was updated by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/lisalanders/\">Lisa Landers\u003c/a> and Arwen Curry.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Chocolate is the solid gold of sweets, providing a standard of delectability that’s been upheld around the globe for more than 2,000 years. The ancient Mayans and Aztecs even used the pods of the cacao tree, which produces chocolate, as currency. They also used cacao as a tonic to improve overall health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72953\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72953 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript. Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript.\u003cbr> Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today’s scientists agree with the ancients: chocolate, in small doses, is not just delicious -- \u003ca href=\"http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/healthy-chocolate/faq-20058044\">it’s actually good for you\u003c/a>. This is particularly true of dark chocolate, which is rich in compounds called flavanols. Also found in red wine, tea and berries, \u003ca href=\"http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/flavonoids-good-for-3158.html\">flavanols have an antioxidant effect\u003c/a>, reducing cell damage and heart disease. Research also strongly suggests that they support healthy blood pressure and reduce the chances of strokes and heart attacks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re really good at really scavenging or sopping up these free radicals that can damage your cells,” said Mary Engler, a senior clinician and training director at the National Institutes of Health, NINR, in Bethesda, MD. Engler has studied the health effects of chocolate and other flavonols since 2001.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72949\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 282px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-72949\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800-282x169.jpg\" alt=\"Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day. Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\" width=\"282\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day.\u003cbr>Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Pregnant women should take special note: Regular intake of chocolate -- the darker the better -- during pregnancy appears to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901253/\">lower the risk of pre-eclampsia\u003c/a>, a dangerous complication. A 2013 study at the University of Helsinki, Finland also showed that \u003ca href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3604275.stm\">women who eat chocolate every day during pregnancy report calmer, happier babies\u003c/a> six months after giving birth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Milk and white chocolate lovers, you're out of luck: you’ll get all the butter, fat, and sugar, but \u003ca href=\"http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS014067360761873X/fulltext\">no circulation-boosting flavanols\u003c/a>. Even dark chocolate is rich and should be eaten in moderation, and beware: some manufacturers artificially darken their product and remove the bitter cacao solids, which contain the healthy compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72948\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72948 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Scientist hope that advanced genomics will help to minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree. Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists are using advanced genomics to help minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree.\u003cbr> Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As beloved as it is, it’s not surprising that chocolate is an important crop for farmers around the world. Roughly 70 percent of cacao is produced in equatorial Africa, where two million small-scale farms depend on the crop. But cocoa production has long suffered from serious losses due to pests, drought and diseases. A third of the cocoa produced in Africa -- $800 million’s worth -- is lost each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fortunately, there’s relief in sight for cacao farmers and the consumers who depend on them. In 2010, scientists at the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service and universities partnered with IBM and the candy company Mars to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">se\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">quence the genome of cacao\u003c/a>, in order to help identify the markers of a more sustainable crop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72947\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72947 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800-280x169.jpg\" alt=\"A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\" width=\"280\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cacao genome sequence has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.cacaogenomedb.org/\">released for free on the internet\u003c/a>, where it can be accessed by researchers who can use it to improve cacao breeding techniques. Farmers can also use the cacao database to select the breeds that will flourish best under changing local conditions. And that’s sweet news for the future of one of the world’s favorite treats.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/17484/the-sweet-science-of-chocolate","authors":["6444"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_5","quest_6","quest_3229","quest_12"],"tags":["quest_11124","quest_13081","quest_590","quest_641","quest_11122","quest_11123","quest_1122","quest_12269","quest_10557","quest_13201","quest_1436","quest_3351","quest_1751","quest_13078","quest_2141","quest_13082","quest_3711","quest_2349","quest_13","quest_13364","quest_13079","quest_2893","quest_13080","quest_3025","quest_13083","quest_3046","quest_3071"],"collections":["quest_3354"],"featImg":"quest_72976","label":"quest_3354"},"quest_27682":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_27682","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"27682","score":null,"sort":[1322079178000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"ibms-watson-computer-and-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence","title":"IBM's Watson Computer and the Future of Artificial Intelligence","publishDate":1322079178,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_27684\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/23/ibms-watson-computer-and-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence/screen-shot-2011-11-21-at-10-55-30-pm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-27684\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/Screen-Shot-2011-11-21-at-10.55.30-PM-300x169.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"Watson\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-27684\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Watson battles it out on Jeopardy\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Last Tuesday, Dr. David Ferrucci spoke at \u003ca href=\"http://www.computerhistory.org/\" title=\"computer history museum\" target=\"_blank\">The Computer History Museum\u003c/a> in Mountain View with The Financial Times' Richard Waters about IBM's Watson computer and the future of artificial intelligence (AI).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson is the most successful AI computer since \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)\" title=\"deep blue\" target=\"_blank\">Deep Blue\u003c/a>, the chess-playing computer that played against and defeated chess grandmaster Garry Kasparov in 1997.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson's mission was to compete against the top champions of the popular trivia show Jeopardy. Dr. Ferrucci was in charge of the Watson project at IBM, and explained to a packed audience how the project came to be and where IBM is taking this technology in the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Artificial intelligence began to experience a renaissance in 1995 when research began on teaching computers how to digest and comprehend knowledge in the manner that humans do -- natural language. Natural language comprehension, the goal of Watson, really strikes at the heart of AI. After the success of Deep Blue, IBM executives wanted to find the \"next big thing\". An executive came up with the idea of a computer that could compete playing Jeopardy. It took a couple years to gain mindshare within IBM to take on what seemed like a harebrained idea, but Dr. Ferrucci stepped up to the plate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson was significantly more challenging to build than its predecessor. As Dr. Ferrucci explained, when Deep Blue was created to play chess, its goal was to follow the rules and strategies of a well-defined game. There is no background knowledge or natural language processing needed to play chess; as such it is well-suited for a machine to play.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The project ran the risk of killing Ferrucci's career if it failed, but he described it as \"a challenge too irresistible not to try\". Over four years, 27 IBM researchers built Watson with Ferrucci.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson uses ~80 kilowatts of electrical power (approximately equal to 700 incandescent light bulbs), 20 tons of air conditioned cooling capacity, 15 terabytes of RAM (the approximate size of 4 million MP3 songs), and 2,880 CPU cores. It's built inside of a self-contained box, so as to constrain it in a way that would make clear that it was not communicating with the outside world or with humans while playing. It holds information equivalent to ~1,000,000 books.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At its core, Watson relies on computing many different possible answers to a question and generating and ranking probabilities about the correctness of each possible response. Watson will only answer a question if the highest probability is over a certain threshold (for example, 50%).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In order for Watson to buzz in, it:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>1. Hears the spoken question, and turns that speech into text.\u003cbr>\n2. Generates queries for more information and gets back data.\u003cbr>\n3. Compiles a series of competing hypotheses from that data.\u003cbr>\n4. Ranks each competing hypothesis based on supporting data that it finds.\u003cbr>\n5. Picks and buzzes in with the top-ranked result (assuming it surpasses the \"correctness\" threshold).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In order to fairly interact with the Jeopardy game as a human does, Watson was outfitted with a robotic hand to depress the buzzer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While Watson may no longer be competing against Jeopardy contestants its underlying technology, Deep QA, has a variety of applications in the real world. In the field of health care, Deep QA can reason over language and can deliver explanations of diagnoses it finds in natural language.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While Deep QA will never replace doctors in performing a diagnosis, it is a vast improvement over existing computer systems that perform diagnoses by giving doctors a 5,000 world deductive proof rather than an readily understandable explanation. Deep QA's abilities are applicable across law, education and defense. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To learn more about Watson, check out the TED talk, \u003ca href=\"http://www.ted.com/webcast/archive/event/ibmwatson\">Final Jeopardy! and the Future of Watson\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Go behind the scenes of IBM's Watson and learn just how it beat the pros on Jeopardy.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1325108569,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":639},"headData":{"title":"IBM's Watson Computer and the Future of Artificial Intelligence | KQED","description":"Go behind the scenes of IBM's Watson and learn just how it beat the pros on Jeopardy.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"27682 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=27682","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/23/ibms-watson-computer-and-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence/","disqusTitle":"IBM's Watson Computer and the Future of Artificial Intelligence","path":"/quest/27682/ibms-watson-computer-and-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_27684\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/23/ibms-watson-computer-and-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence/screen-shot-2011-11-21-at-10-55-30-pm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-27684\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/Screen-Shot-2011-11-21-at-10.55.30-PM-300x169.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"Watson\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-27684\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Watson battles it out on Jeopardy\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Last Tuesday, Dr. David Ferrucci spoke at \u003ca href=\"http://www.computerhistory.org/\" title=\"computer history museum\" target=\"_blank\">The Computer History Museum\u003c/a> in Mountain View with The Financial Times' Richard Waters about IBM's Watson computer and the future of artificial intelligence (AI).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson is the most successful AI computer since \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)\" title=\"deep blue\" target=\"_blank\">Deep Blue\u003c/a>, the chess-playing computer that played against and defeated chess grandmaster Garry Kasparov in 1997.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson's mission was to compete against the top champions of the popular trivia show Jeopardy. Dr. Ferrucci was in charge of the Watson project at IBM, and explained to a packed audience how the project came to be and where IBM is taking this technology in the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Artificial intelligence began to experience a renaissance in 1995 when research began on teaching computers how to digest and comprehend knowledge in the manner that humans do -- natural language. Natural language comprehension, the goal of Watson, really strikes at the heart of AI. After the success of Deep Blue, IBM executives wanted to find the \"next big thing\". An executive came up with the idea of a computer that could compete playing Jeopardy. It took a couple years to gain mindshare within IBM to take on what seemed like a harebrained idea, but Dr. Ferrucci stepped up to the plate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson was significantly more challenging to build than its predecessor. As Dr. Ferrucci explained, when Deep Blue was created to play chess, its goal was to follow the rules and strategies of a well-defined game. There is no background knowledge or natural language processing needed to play chess; as such it is well-suited for a machine to play.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The project ran the risk of killing Ferrucci's career if it failed, but he described it as \"a challenge too irresistible not to try\". Over four years, 27 IBM researchers built Watson with Ferrucci.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watson uses ~80 kilowatts of electrical power (approximately equal to 700 incandescent light bulbs), 20 tons of air conditioned cooling capacity, 15 terabytes of RAM (the approximate size of 4 million MP3 songs), and 2,880 CPU cores. It's built inside of a self-contained box, so as to constrain it in a way that would make clear that it was not communicating with the outside world or with humans while playing. It holds information equivalent to ~1,000,000 books.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At its core, Watson relies on computing many different possible answers to a question and generating and ranking probabilities about the correctness of each possible response. Watson will only answer a question if the highest probability is over a certain threshold (for example, 50%).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In order for Watson to buzz in, it:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>1. Hears the spoken question, and turns that speech into text.\u003cbr>\n2. Generates queries for more information and gets back data.\u003cbr>\n3. Compiles a series of competing hypotheses from that data.\u003cbr>\n4. Ranks each competing hypothesis based on supporting data that it finds.\u003cbr>\n5. Picks and buzzes in with the top-ranked result (assuming it surpasses the \"correctness\" threshold).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In order to fairly interact with the Jeopardy game as a human does, Watson was outfitted with a robotic hand to depress the buzzer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While Watson may no longer be competing against Jeopardy contestants its underlying technology, Deep QA, has a variety of applications in the real world. In the field of health care, Deep QA can reason over language and can deliver explanations of diagnoses it finds in natural language.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While Deep QA will never replace doctors in performing a diagnosis, it is a vast improvement over existing computer systems that perform diagnoses by giving doctors a 5,000 world deductive proof rather than an readily understandable explanation. Deep QA's abilities are applicable across law, education and defense. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To learn more about Watson, check out the TED talk, \u003ca href=\"http://www.ted.com/webcast/archive/event/ibmwatson\">Final Jeopardy! and the Future of Watson\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/27682/ibms-watson-computer-and-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence","authors":["10174"],"categories":["quest_8"],"tags":["quest_88","quest_9938","quest_1436","quest_13202","quest_10489"],"featImg":"quest_27684","label":"quest"},"quest_11397":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_11397","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"11397","score":null,"sort":[1294246833000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"racetrack-memory-on-the-move","title":"Racetrack Memory On the Move","publishDate":1294246833,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/gocart1.jpg\">\u003cem>Caption: A new design for comuter memory would send information shooting along wires like cars along a racetrack. Image source: \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indoor_american_go-cart_race_track.jpg\">Jina Lee\u003c/a>, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The word racetrack has quite a history in American culture. It conjures up images of horse racing, with beautiful animals, colorful spectators, cheap hot dogs, and expensive gambling. Perhaps more prominently, it brings automobiles to mind. The Ford \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T\">Model-T\u003c/a> made cars affordable, and Prohibition \u003ca href=\"http://www.library.appstate.edu/stockcar/history.html\">catalyzed the development of brawny speedsters that could outmuscle the police cruisers\u003c/a>, but it was the automobile’s marriage to the racetrack that finally transformed stock car racing into the booming phenomenon that it is today. \u003ca href=\"http://www.engadget.com/2010/12/27/ibm-makes-racetrack-memory-breakthrough-which-could-come-in-han/\">Now a team of researchers at IBM lead by Stuart Parkin\u003c/a> would like us to start associating the word with computer memory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racetrack_memory\">Racetrack Memory\u003c/a>, as the research team has coined it, is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today. In an article published in the December 24th issue of the journal Science, Parkin and collaborators have measured some key features of magnetism that bring the idea one step closer to viability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Devices today almost all store their memory using either \u003ca href=\"http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/flash-memory.htm\">FLASH\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://www.research.ibm.com/research/gmr/basics.html\">magnetic hard drives\u003c/a>. Both technologies have undergone dizzying improvements recently in storage capacity, cost, and reading and writing speed. Still, they have a few inherent drawbacks. Traditional magnetic hard drives are inexpensive and have an enormous storage capacity. However, they require moving parts, which costs a device energy and consequently battery life. FLASH memory has no moving parts, but it takes a relatively long time to write information, and FLASH continues to be more expensive than magnetic hard drives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Racetrack Memory is proposed to be a third alternative. Information would be stored magnetically in a similar manner to a magnetic hard drive. However, instead of storing the information in stationary bits on a disk, it would be stored in thin nanowires, and if the proper signals are applied, the information could be zipped through the wires from one place to another — like a car shooting down a racetrack — with no need for moving parts. IBM has big ambitions for the new memory architecture, claiming that it would enable a single portable device to hold more than 2,000 movies while running on a battery that would last for weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Particularly exciting is the fact that the basics of Racetrack Memory are becoming rapidly understood. “In the past ~5 years we have demonstrated that the physics underlying the Racetrack Memory that I proposed in 2004 or so works!” Dr. Parkin said. “Thus, there are no fundamental roadblocks to making Racetrack Memory a reality.” This is a contrast with some of the more exotic ideas out there for computer memory (see my last \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/07/29/computer-memory-poised-to-get-shock-therapy/\">blog post on multiferroics\u003c/a>, for example).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So why can’t I seem to find a media player that doesn’t conk out after half a day’s use yet? Parkin said that while the physics of Racetrack Memory architecture works, many engineering hurdles still need to be overcome. He was unwilling to put a definite time estimate on when devices might begin to show up in the marketplace. “Of course,” he joked, “if you write a large check, we can build you a prototype Racetrack Memory in just two to three years (depending on the size of the check!).”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Racetrack Memory is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1294246833,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":579},"headData":{"title":"Racetrack Memory On the Move | KQED","description":"Racetrack Memory is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"11397 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/01/05/racetrack-memory-on-the-move/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/01/05/racetrack-memory-on-the-move/","disqusTitle":"Racetrack Memory On the Move","path":"/quest/11397/racetrack-memory-on-the-move","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/gocart1.jpg\">\u003cem>Caption: A new design for comuter memory would send information shooting along wires like cars along a racetrack. Image source: \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indoor_american_go-cart_race_track.jpg\">Jina Lee\u003c/a>, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The word racetrack has quite a history in American culture. It conjures up images of horse racing, with beautiful animals, colorful spectators, cheap hot dogs, and expensive gambling. Perhaps more prominently, it brings automobiles to mind. The Ford \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T\">Model-T\u003c/a> made cars affordable, and Prohibition \u003ca href=\"http://www.library.appstate.edu/stockcar/history.html\">catalyzed the development of brawny speedsters that could outmuscle the police cruisers\u003c/a>, but it was the automobile’s marriage to the racetrack that finally transformed stock car racing into the booming phenomenon that it is today. \u003ca href=\"http://www.engadget.com/2010/12/27/ibm-makes-racetrack-memory-breakthrough-which-could-come-in-han/\">Now a team of researchers at IBM lead by Stuart Parkin\u003c/a> would like us to start associating the word with computer memory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racetrack_memory\">Racetrack Memory\u003c/a>, as the research team has coined it, is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today. In an article published in the December 24th issue of the journal Science, Parkin and collaborators have measured some key features of magnetism that bring the idea one step closer to viability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Devices today almost all store their memory using either \u003ca href=\"http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/flash-memory.htm\">FLASH\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://www.research.ibm.com/research/gmr/basics.html\">magnetic hard drives\u003c/a>. Both technologies have undergone dizzying improvements recently in storage capacity, cost, and reading and writing speed. Still, they have a few inherent drawbacks. Traditional magnetic hard drives are inexpensive and have an enormous storage capacity. However, they require moving parts, which costs a device energy and consequently battery life. FLASH memory has no moving parts, but it takes a relatively long time to write information, and FLASH continues to be more expensive than magnetic hard drives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Racetrack Memory is proposed to be a third alternative. Information would be stored magnetically in a similar manner to a magnetic hard drive. However, instead of storing the information in stationary bits on a disk, it would be stored in thin nanowires, and if the proper signals are applied, the information could be zipped through the wires from one place to another — like a car shooting down a racetrack — with no need for moving parts. IBM has big ambitions for the new memory architecture, claiming that it would enable a single portable device to hold more than 2,000 movies while running on a battery that would last for weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Particularly exciting is the fact that the basics of Racetrack Memory are becoming rapidly understood. “In the past ~5 years we have demonstrated that the physics underlying the Racetrack Memory that I proposed in 2004 or so works!” Dr. Parkin said. “Thus, there are no fundamental roadblocks to making Racetrack Memory a reality.” This is a contrast with some of the more exotic ideas out there for computer memory (see my last \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/07/29/computer-memory-poised-to-get-shock-therapy/\">blog post on multiferroics\u003c/a>, for example).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So why can’t I seem to find a media player that doesn’t conk out after half a day’s use yet? Parkin said that while the physics of Racetrack Memory architecture works, many engineering hurdles still need to be overcome. He was unwilling to put a definite time estimate on when devices might begin to show up in the marketplace. “Of course,” he joked, “if you write a large check, we can build you a prototype Racetrack Memory in just two to three years (depending on the size of the check!).”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/11397/racetrack-memory-on-the-move","authors":["10205"],"categories":["quest_8"],"tags":["quest_678","quest_1106","quest_1436","quest_1788","quest_2358"],"featImg":"quest_11401","label":"quest"},"quest_8535":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_8535","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"8535","score":null,"sort":[1285355849000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time","title":"Scientists Manipulate Atoms in Real Time","publishDate":1285355849,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/1c_STMAnimation.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Illustration of a magnetically active iron atom under observation in the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine a future where iPods could store hundreds of thousands -- or even millions -- of songs, where smart phones could hold hundreds of Hollywood films, and where solar-powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a future that may be possible. IBM scientists in San Jose have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper describing the research was published Friday as the cover story in the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/\">Science\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To observe the behavior of individual copper and iron atoms billionths of a meter in size, the scientists had to use a “\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope\">scanning tunneling microscope\u003c/a>,” a device invented by IBM researchers in 1981.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It isn’t your typical microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/2_LothSTM.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>IBM Postdoctoral Researcher Sebastian Loth next to the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The cool thing about the scanning tunneling microscope is that you can not only see these atoms, you can move them around,” said Sebastian Loth, a postdoctoral researcher at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.almaden.ibm.com/\">IBM Almaden-Research Center\u003c/a>, and the lead author of the paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The device uses a metallic-pointed tip mounted on a robotic arm to move with atomic-scale precision next to iron and copper atoms. Iron was chosen because it’s magnetically active, even at the scale of individual atoms. While the individual copper atoms aren’t magnetically active, they influence the duration the iron atoms stay magnetically active when they’re placed next to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loth and his four other team members sent a current from the tip of the microscope to the iron atoms, which are like tiny bar magnets. The current causes the iron atom to become polarized, or to change its magnetic orientation, so instead of pointing north, it points south.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is the information, or data, that the scientists observed and measured on the order of nanoseconds, or billionths of a second. The difference between one nanosecond and one second is equal to the difference between one second and 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s similar to the way a computer reads the bits of data stored on a computer chip. But here, instead of the typical sequence of ones and zeroes to indicate information, the scientists looked at magnetic information -- the direction the iron atom pointed in and for how long it kept its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists experimented with the number and placement of iron atoms next to copper atoms to find the right configuration that would yield the longest time frame an iron atom would hold its magnetic position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The particular structure that we studied is this combination of one iron and one copper atom right next to it, snuggling it. With this configuration, the iron atom it holds the magnetic information for 200 nanoseconds”, said Loth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/3_STMCloseup1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Closeup view of the IBM scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the moment, the research team is exploring other configurations of iron and copper atoms to increase this length of time, which although extremely brief, is still long enough for meaningful activity to take place in today’s computers. For example, a laptop with a fast processor refreshes data constantly, every nanosecond. So in 200 nanoseconds, the computer has already performed a few hundred operations while its user is typing a document, surfing the web or checking email.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today’s hard drives, as compact as they are, still require about 10,000 atoms to store one bit of data. Each bit is a magnet pointing up or down, referring to a one or a zero, which a sensor on the hard drive reads when it retrieves data. Since the IBM researchers showed that magnetic information can be stored and read out on just one iron atom, the real estate needed to store data could shrink enormously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you could do atomic-scale data storage in a real device, you would have another 40 years in the development of Moore’s Law”, said Andreas Heinrich, a co-author of the paper and the research team leader.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moore’s Law, coined in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, states that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every 18 months, allowing for an exponential increase in computing power and storage. At a certain point, which is fast approaching, the physical limitation of engineering such small silicon transistors will prevent this exponential progress in computer chip technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating particles billionths of a meter in size, is widely seen as the answer to leapfrog over the limitations of traditional silicon chip manufacturing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We want to get away from transistors, to come up with new schemes on single atoms that allow you to do computation and data storage differently, more efficiently with less power”, said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A key challenge the IBM scientists had to overcome was to somehow visualize the individual atoms’ magnetic behavior in real time, on the order of a few nanoseconds. The computer attached to their microscope generated a map of the location of the atoms but it was missing the crucial time component.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We see these images of the atoms and they all look static,” said Loth. “The reason for that is that the scanning tunneling microscope is a slow technique. It takes minutes to get one of these images.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But thanks to inspiration from a Sci-Fi blockbuster, the researchers were able to actually capture movies that show the evolution of magnetically active individual iron atoms, a million times faster than was previously possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was a true feat of five people sticking their heads together for days on end. We were all in the lab talking about this and I was thinking of these cool bullet shots from \u003cem>The Matrix\u003c/em>, when the villain shoots at the good guy and you see the bullets stop in the air,” Loth said. “This is what we wanted to do. We wanted to freeze the motion so that we can inspect it and the way \u003cem>The Matrix \u003c/em>movie guys did it, they just took a bunch of still pictures. So we took a bunch of still pictures too.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think of it as time-lapse photography, shot at the nano-scale. But since neither the microscope nor its attached computer have lenses, the “pictures” they generated were individual points of action, recorded every few nanoseconds, while manipulating the iron atoms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The research team connected to their microscope a machine, a pulse pattern generator, to deliver extremely fast pulses of electricity from the metallic tip of the microscope to the iron atoms. After an iron atom was given a tiny electric current to initially polarize it and change its magnetic orientation from north to south, for example, a second, smaller current was then given to measure how strongly the atom held its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process was repeated over and over again, generating individual frames of action every 2 or 3 nanoseconds to capture in real time the magnetic behavior of the iron atom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have a defined delay between the initiating pulse and the reading pulse and this is what sets our time,” said Loth. “Instead of having to watch really closely and hope you catch this information in time, you predefine it by these pulses.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The frames were then sequentially played back as a movie, with the various data the computer was collecting to refer to the location of the atom and its magnetic orientation, for example, converted into a map showing the dynamic activity of the iron atom over time. The six movies the team has generated today are about a minute long but they show action that was recorded over the space of one millionth of a second.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/4_STM-time-resolution-3d-rendering.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>3D map illustration of iron atoms, with the strength of their magnetic polarization represented as yellow bars. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science is often close to an art. And one aspect of this is how you visualize your data in a way that looks most efficient and cool,” said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ability to capture atomic activity in real time represents a major milestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our effort to speed up nanoscience and put high-speed time into the nanoscience,” said Heinrich. “People were able to study nano-sized objects since the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, and people were able to study fast phenomena using lasers, but they weren’t able to combine these two worlds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This work is beautiful,” said Kathryn Moler, a professor of applied physics at Stanford University. “For information technology, it could mean a new generation of devices with better storage capabilities and lower power consumption,” she added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The IBM researchers said they are confident that their breakthrough will spur innovation in other fields as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heinrich said the microscope set-up could be “tuned to a different channel of information.” So instead of looking at the magnetic characteristics of an atom, scientists working on solar cells could track at the level of nanoseconds when a photon of light is converted into energy. Such work could yield better-designed solar cells that are more efficient at capturing light and converting it into electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a scientist, sometimes you make a development or discovery that is truly great and this was one of those moments when I knew this was a great development and something to be really proud of,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>Movie of iron atoms placed alongside copper atoms as they change their magnetic polarization over time. Red indicates high polarization and white indicates low polarization.(Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.210445 -121.810514\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Imagine a future where iPods are capable of storing hundreds of thousands or millions of songs, where smart phones could play back several hundred times more feature-length Hollywood films than is currently possible, and where solar powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\n\nIt’s a future that may be possible thanks to research being done by IBM scientists in San Jose who have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1285355849,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":44,"wordCount":1698},"headData":{"title":"Scientists Manipulate Atoms in Real Time | KQED","description":"Imagine a future where iPods are capable of storing hundreds of thousands or millions of songs, where smart phones could play back several hundred times more feature-length Hollywood films than is currently possible, and where solar powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\n\nIt’s a future that may be possible thanks to research being done by IBM scientists in San Jose who have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"8535 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2010/09/24/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/09/24/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time/","disqusTitle":"Scientists Manipulate Atoms in Real Time","path":"/quest/8535/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/1c_STMAnimation.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Illustration of a magnetically active iron atom under observation in the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine a future where iPods could store hundreds of thousands -- or even millions -- of songs, where smart phones could hold hundreds of Hollywood films, and where solar-powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a future that may be possible. IBM scientists in San Jose have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper describing the research was published Friday as the cover story in the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/\">Science\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To observe the behavior of individual copper and iron atoms billionths of a meter in size, the scientists had to use a “\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope\">scanning tunneling microscope\u003c/a>,” a device invented by IBM researchers in 1981.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It isn’t your typical microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/2_LothSTM.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>IBM Postdoctoral Researcher Sebastian Loth next to the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The cool thing about the scanning tunneling microscope is that you can not only see these atoms, you can move them around,” said Sebastian Loth, a postdoctoral researcher at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.almaden.ibm.com/\">IBM Almaden-Research Center\u003c/a>, and the lead author of the paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The device uses a metallic-pointed tip mounted on a robotic arm to move with atomic-scale precision next to iron and copper atoms. Iron was chosen because it’s magnetically active, even at the scale of individual atoms. While the individual copper atoms aren’t magnetically active, they influence the duration the iron atoms stay magnetically active when they’re placed next to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loth and his four other team members sent a current from the tip of the microscope to the iron atoms, which are like tiny bar magnets. The current causes the iron atom to become polarized, or to change its magnetic orientation, so instead of pointing north, it points south.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is the information, or data, that the scientists observed and measured on the order of nanoseconds, or billionths of a second. The difference between one nanosecond and one second is equal to the difference between one second and 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s similar to the way a computer reads the bits of data stored on a computer chip. But here, instead of the typical sequence of ones and zeroes to indicate information, the scientists looked at magnetic information -- the direction the iron atom pointed in and for how long it kept its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists experimented with the number and placement of iron atoms next to copper atoms to find the right configuration that would yield the longest time frame an iron atom would hold its magnetic position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The particular structure that we studied is this combination of one iron and one copper atom right next to it, snuggling it. With this configuration, the iron atom it holds the magnetic information for 200 nanoseconds”, said Loth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/3_STMCloseup1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Closeup view of the IBM scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the moment, the research team is exploring other configurations of iron and copper atoms to increase this length of time, which although extremely brief, is still long enough for meaningful activity to take place in today’s computers. For example, a laptop with a fast processor refreshes data constantly, every nanosecond. So in 200 nanoseconds, the computer has already performed a few hundred operations while its user is typing a document, surfing the web or checking email.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today’s hard drives, as compact as they are, still require about 10,000 atoms to store one bit of data. Each bit is a magnet pointing up or down, referring to a one or a zero, which a sensor on the hard drive reads when it retrieves data. Since the IBM researchers showed that magnetic information can be stored and read out on just one iron atom, the real estate needed to store data could shrink enormously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you could do atomic-scale data storage in a real device, you would have another 40 years in the development of Moore’s Law”, said Andreas Heinrich, a co-author of the paper and the research team leader.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moore’s Law, coined in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, states that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every 18 months, allowing for an exponential increase in computing power and storage. At a certain point, which is fast approaching, the physical limitation of engineering such small silicon transistors will prevent this exponential progress in computer chip technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating particles billionths of a meter in size, is widely seen as the answer to leapfrog over the limitations of traditional silicon chip manufacturing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We want to get away from transistors, to come up with new schemes on single atoms that allow you to do computation and data storage differently, more efficiently with less power”, said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A key challenge the IBM scientists had to overcome was to somehow visualize the individual atoms’ magnetic behavior in real time, on the order of a few nanoseconds. The computer attached to their microscope generated a map of the location of the atoms but it was missing the crucial time component.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We see these images of the atoms and they all look static,” said Loth. “The reason for that is that the scanning tunneling microscope is a slow technique. It takes minutes to get one of these images.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But thanks to inspiration from a Sci-Fi blockbuster, the researchers were able to actually capture movies that show the evolution of magnetically active individual iron atoms, a million times faster than was previously possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was a true feat of five people sticking their heads together for days on end. We were all in the lab talking about this and I was thinking of these cool bullet shots from \u003cem>The Matrix\u003c/em>, when the villain shoots at the good guy and you see the bullets stop in the air,” Loth said. “This is what we wanted to do. We wanted to freeze the motion so that we can inspect it and the way \u003cem>The Matrix \u003c/em>movie guys did it, they just took a bunch of still pictures. So we took a bunch of still pictures too.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think of it as time-lapse photography, shot at the nano-scale. But since neither the microscope nor its attached computer have lenses, the “pictures” they generated were individual points of action, recorded every few nanoseconds, while manipulating the iron atoms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The research team connected to their microscope a machine, a pulse pattern generator, to deliver extremely fast pulses of electricity from the metallic tip of the microscope to the iron atoms. After an iron atom was given a tiny electric current to initially polarize it and change its magnetic orientation from north to south, for example, a second, smaller current was then given to measure how strongly the atom held its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process was repeated over and over again, generating individual frames of action every 2 or 3 nanoseconds to capture in real time the magnetic behavior of the iron atom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have a defined delay between the initiating pulse and the reading pulse and this is what sets our time,” said Loth. “Instead of having to watch really closely and hope you catch this information in time, you predefine it by these pulses.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The frames were then sequentially played back as a movie, with the various data the computer was collecting to refer to the location of the atom and its magnetic orientation, for example, converted into a map showing the dynamic activity of the iron atom over time. The six movies the team has generated today are about a minute long but they show action that was recorded over the space of one millionth of a second.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/4_STM-time-resolution-3d-rendering.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>3D map illustration of iron atoms, with the strength of their magnetic polarization represented as yellow bars. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science is often close to an art. And one aspect of this is how you visualize your data in a way that looks most efficient and cool,” said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ability to capture atomic activity in real time represents a major milestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our effort to speed up nanoscience and put high-speed time into the nanoscience,” said Heinrich. “People were able to study nano-sized objects since the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, and people were able to study fast phenomena using lasers, but they weren’t able to combine these two worlds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This work is beautiful,” said Kathryn Moler, a professor of applied physics at Stanford University. “For information technology, it could mean a new generation of devices with better storage capabilities and lower power consumption,” she added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The IBM researchers said they are confident that their breakthrough will spur innovation in other fields as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heinrich said the microscope set-up could be “tuned to a different channel of information.” So instead of looking at the magnetic characteristics of an atom, scientists working on solar cells could track at the level of nanoseconds when a photon of light is converted into energy. Such work could yield better-designed solar cells that are more efficient at capturing light and converting it into electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a scientist, sometimes you make a development or discovery that is truly great and this was one of those moments when I knew this was a great development and something to be really proud of,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>Movie of iron atoms placed alongside copper atoms as they change their magnetic polarization over time. Red indicates high polarization and white indicates low polarization.(Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.210445 -121.810514\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/8535/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time","authors":["6176"],"categories":["quest_8","quest_16"],"tags":["quest_125","quest_161","quest_678","quest_1436","quest_1872","quest_1913","quest_13203","quest_2520","quest_2573"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. 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Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. 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As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. 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