Bay Area Biotech Industry Braces for Gene Patenting Court Case
Why Your Newfound Uniqueness is a Nightmare for Your Doctor
Divining Human History with DNA
We Don’t Want the Funk (in our Wine)
Sniffing Out Mr. Right
Will He Have My Nose?
Turning Chickens into Dinosaurs
Autism More than Genes
The Cloud in the Silver Lining
Sponsored
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Together these two partners created the \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/permanent/index.php?sGalKey=gtwt&galKey=lt\">Genetics: Technology with a Twist\u003c/a> exhibition.\r\n\r\nYou can also see \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/author/dr-barry-starr/\">additional posts by Barry at KQED Science\u003c/a>, and read his \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/dr-barry-starr/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":"geneticsboy","facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"science","roles":["author"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Dr. Barry Starr | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/dr-barry-starr"}},"breakingNewsReducer":{},"campaignFinanceReducer":{},"firebase":{"requesting":{},"requested":{},"timestamps":{},"data":{},"ordered":{},"auth":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"authError":null,"profile":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"listeners":{"byId":{},"allIds":[]},"isInitializing":false,"errors":[]},"navBarReducer":{"navBarId":"home","fullView":true,"showPlayer":false},"navMenuReducer":{"menus":[{"key":"menu1","items":[{"name":"News","link":"/","type":"title"},{"name":"Politics","link":"/politics"},{"name":"Science","link":"/science"},{"name":"Education","link":"/educationnews"},{"name":"Housing","link":"/housing"},{"name":"Immigration","link":"/immigration"},{"name":"Criminal Justice","link":"/criminaljustice"},{"name":"Silicon Valley","link":"/siliconvalley"},{"name":"Forum","link":"/forum"},{"name":"The California Report","link":"/californiareport"}]},{"key":"menu2","items":[{"name":"Arts & Culture","link":"/arts","type":"title"},{"name":"Critics’ Picks","link":"/thedolist"},{"name":"Cultural Commentary","link":"/artscommentary"},{"name":"Food & Drink","link":"/food"},{"name":"Bay Area Hip-Hop","link":"/bayareahiphop"},{"name":"Rebel Girls","link":"/rebelgirls"},{"name":"Arts Video","link":"/artsvideos"}]},{"key":"menu3","items":[{"name":"Podcasts","link":"/podcasts","type":"title"},{"name":"Bay Curious","link":"/podcasts/baycurious"},{"name":"Rightnowish","link":"/podcasts/rightnowish"},{"name":"The Bay","link":"/podcasts/thebay"},{"name":"On Our Watch","link":"/podcasts/onourwatch"},{"name":"Mindshift","link":"/podcasts/mindshift"},{"name":"Consider This","link":"/podcasts/considerthis"},{"name":"Political Breakdown","link":"/podcasts/politicalbreakdown"}]},{"key":"menu4","items":[{"name":"Live Radio","link":"/radio","type":"title"},{"name":"TV","link":"/tv","type":"title"},{"name":"Events","link":"/events","type":"title"},{"name":"For Educators","link":"/education","type":"title"},{"name":"Support KQED","link":"/support","type":"title"},{"name":"About","link":"/about","type":"title"},{"name":"Help Center","link":"https://kqed-helpcenter.kqed.org/s","type":"title"}]}]},"pagesReducer":{},"postsReducer":{"stream_live":{"type":"live","id":"stream_live","audioUrl":"https://streams.kqed.org/kqedradio","title":"Live Stream","excerpt":"Live Stream information currently unavailable.","link":"/radio","featImg":"","label":{"name":"KQED Live","link":"/"}},"stream_kqedNewscast":{"type":"posts","id":"stream_kqedNewscast","audioUrl":"https://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/RDnews/newscast.mp3?_=1","title":"KQED Newscast","featImg":"","label":{"name":"88.5 FM","link":"/"}},"quest_52297":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_52297","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"52297","score":null,"sort":[1365802017000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"bay-area-biotech-industry-braces-for-gene-patenting-court-case","title":"Bay Area Biotech Industry Braces for Gene Patenting Court Case","publishDate":1365802017,"format":"audio","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2013/04/20130415science.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bay Area biotechnology companies are keeping an eye on the nation’s highest court. On Monday, the Supreme Court will hear a case on a key question: can you patent a human gene?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A recent study estimates that close to half of human genes identified so far are already patented. The court’s ruling could put millions of dollars at stake for Bay Area universities and biotech companies. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At issue are two genes related to breast and ovarian cancer, \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/stateofhealth/2013/04/12/breast-cancer-gene-mutations-at-heart-of-supreme-court-case/#more-12082\">BRCA 1 and BRCA 2\u003c/a>. Women with mutations in these genes are five to eight times more likely to develop breast cancer. To gauge that risk, patients often get a genetic test. It’s one of the most common tests that genetic counselors handle, like Julie Mak at\u003ca href=\"http://cancer.ucsf.edu/\"> UCSF’s Cancer Center\u003c/a>in San Francisco.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52321\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/sequencing.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-52321 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/sequencing-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Preparation for DNA sequencing (Maggie Bartlett, NHGRI)\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Preparation for DNA sequencing (Maggie Bartlett, NHGRI)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I do think it opens up a very loaded set of questions for people who are sometimes very young,” says Mak. “As you can imagine, the things we talk about with people are very serious and sometimes stressful and upsetting.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A blood or saliva sample can tell a woman if she has those mutations, but that test isn’t run at UCSF. “For most BRCA 1 and 2 testing, the lab in Utah is the only one that does this testing,” Mak says, referring to Myriad Genetics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.myriad.com/\">Myriad Genetics\u003c/a> holds patents on not only the test, but the actual genes themselves. That means one company has a monopoly on those genes and theoretically controls what can be done with them. That’s what’s being challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Natural or Not?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“A lot of people wonder: how can you patent a gene?” says Mildred Cho, associate director of the \u003ca href=\"http://bioethics.stanford.edu/\">Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the case, the ACLU is arguing that genes aren’t patentable because they’re naturally occurring -- they’re found inside our bodies. According to patent law, “products of nature are not patentable,” Cho says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Myriad Genetics argues that by extracting a specific gene and isolating it, it turns into a man-made invention, which makes it patentable. “In order to analyze to DNA, you have to break open the cells and break the DNA up in to little pieces,” Cho explains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Legal complexities aside, Cho says it has real effects on our healthcare decision, like getting a second opinion. “No laboratory has 100 percent accuracy and so you would ideally want to have a lab result that’s really important confirmed by another lab,” she says. “You can’t do that if there are patents on that lab test.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Questions of Open Access\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Patents can also affect genetic research, according to UCSF professor Dr. Robert Nusssbaum. When I meet him in his office, he’s wearing a button pinned to his shirt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So my button says ‘free the data,'” he points out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since DNA doesn’t come with an instruction manual that reveals if a genetic mutation is harmful or not, the only way to find out is to compare it to thousands of other genetic tests.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The only way to make that happen faster is for all the laboratories to pool all their information in one place and all have access to it,” Nussbaum says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not everyone is sharing. “There are a couple of laboratories, and Myriad is one of them, that have decided that since they had the patent on testing, that they would keep their data locked up as intellectual property,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In response, Nussbaum has organized an \u003ca href=\"http://www.sharingclinicalreports.org/\">open source database\u003c/a> that holds genetic data about breast cancer mutations, free for researchers to use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In terms of gene testing, I think patents are of no value, period,” says Nussbaum.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Basis of Biotech\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Patents are a very important, fundamental part of the foundation on which the biotechnology, biopharmaceutical industry has been built,” says Sean Johnston, general counsel at \u003ca href=\"http://www.gene.com/\">Genentech\u003c/a> in South San Francisco, one of the largest biotech companies in the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Companies like Genentech use genetic information to develop drugs and treatments, in addition to genetic diagnostic tests.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Biotech and biopharmaceutical companies have relied upon patent protection to justify the significant investment, the risk-taking and the innovation that is necessary to develop new drugs,” Johnston says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Johnston says it often takes a billion dollars to bring a drug to market, an investment that could be tougher to make without the protection of gene patents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s not a matter that if the court were to rule broadly our business would be destroyed,” Johnston says. “But in theory I think it has the potential to be very disruptive to the industry.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Universities in the Middle\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Biotech companies here aren’t the only ones watching this case. The University of California as a whole is one of the top ten gene patent holders in the country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Universities are often accused of patenting solely for the purpose of getting financial gain,” says Karin Immergluck of UCSF’s Office of Technology Management. The office handles several hundred gene patents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“UCSF’s first goal is to translate our really exciting, cutting-edge technologies into products and services that will benefit the public,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The university walks a fine line. Companies pay millions of dollars a year to use its patents, like the one related to human growth hormone. But the court case brings up issue in licensing patents that universities already grappling with.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“For example, making sure the rights aren’t completely locked up in one company so that underinsured patients don’t have access,” says Immergluck.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Patient access, biotech industry profits and innovation could all be affected by the Supreme Court’s ruling. It’s expected in June.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The Supreme Court is hearing a case on a key question: can you patent a human gene? ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1366389328,"stats":{"hasAudio":true,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":34,"wordCount":1025},"headData":{"title":"Bay Area Biotech Industry Braces for Gene Patenting Court Case | KQED","description":"The Supreme Court is hearing a case on a key question: can you patent a human gene? ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Bay Area Biotech Industry Braces for Gene Patenting Court Case","datePublished":"2013-04-12T21:26:57.000Z","dateModified":"2013-04-19T16:35:28.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"52297 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?post_type=audio_reports&p=52297","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/04/12/bay-area-biotech-industry-braces-for-gene-patenting-court-case/","disqusTitle":"Bay Area Biotech Industry Braces for Gene Patenting Court Case","WpOldSlug":"west-coast-a-test-bed-for-ocean-acidification-2","path":"/quest/52297/bay-area-biotech-industry-braces-for-gene-patenting-court-case","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2013/04/20130415science.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"audioLink","attributes":{"named":{"src":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2013/04/20130415science.mp3"},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Bay Area biotechnology companies are keeping an eye on the nation’s highest court. On Monday, the Supreme Court will hear a case on a key question: can you patent a human gene?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A recent study estimates that close to half of human genes identified so far are already patented. The court’s ruling could put millions of dollars at stake for Bay Area universities and biotech companies. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At issue are two genes related to breast and ovarian cancer, \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/stateofhealth/2013/04/12/breast-cancer-gene-mutations-at-heart-of-supreme-court-case/#more-12082\">BRCA 1 and BRCA 2\u003c/a>. Women with mutations in these genes are five to eight times more likely to develop breast cancer. To gauge that risk, patients often get a genetic test. It’s one of the most common tests that genetic counselors handle, like Julie Mak at\u003ca href=\"http://cancer.ucsf.edu/\"> UCSF’s Cancer Center\u003c/a>in San Francisco.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52321\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/sequencing.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-52321 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/sequencing-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Preparation for DNA sequencing (Maggie Bartlett, NHGRI)\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Preparation for DNA sequencing (Maggie Bartlett, NHGRI)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I do think it opens up a very loaded set of questions for people who are sometimes very young,” says Mak. “As you can imagine, the things we talk about with people are very serious and sometimes stressful and upsetting.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A blood or saliva sample can tell a woman if she has those mutations, but that test isn’t run at UCSF. “For most BRCA 1 and 2 testing, the lab in Utah is the only one that does this testing,” Mak says, referring to Myriad Genetics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.myriad.com/\">Myriad Genetics\u003c/a> holds patents on not only the test, but the actual genes themselves. That means one company has a monopoly on those genes and theoretically controls what can be done with them. That’s what’s being challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Natural or Not?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“A lot of people wonder: how can you patent a gene?” says Mildred Cho, associate director of the \u003ca href=\"http://bioethics.stanford.edu/\">Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the case, the ACLU is arguing that genes aren’t patentable because they’re naturally occurring -- they’re found inside our bodies. According to patent law, “products of nature are not patentable,” Cho says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Myriad Genetics argues that by extracting a specific gene and isolating it, it turns into a man-made invention, which makes it patentable. “In order to analyze to DNA, you have to break open the cells and break the DNA up in to little pieces,” Cho explains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Legal complexities aside, Cho says it has real effects on our healthcare decision, like getting a second opinion. “No laboratory has 100 percent accuracy and so you would ideally want to have a lab result that’s really important confirmed by another lab,” she says. “You can’t do that if there are patents on that lab test.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Questions of Open Access\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Patents can also affect genetic research, according to UCSF professor Dr. Robert Nusssbaum. When I meet him in his office, he’s wearing a button pinned to his shirt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So my button says ‘free the data,'” he points out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since DNA doesn’t come with an instruction manual that reveals if a genetic mutation is harmful or not, the only way to find out is to compare it to thousands of other genetic tests.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The only way to make that happen faster is for all the laboratories to pool all their information in one place and all have access to it,” Nussbaum says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not everyone is sharing. “There are a couple of laboratories, and Myriad is one of them, that have decided that since they had the patent on testing, that they would keep their data locked up as intellectual property,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In response, Nussbaum has organized an \u003ca href=\"http://www.sharingclinicalreports.org/\">open source database\u003c/a> that holds genetic data about breast cancer mutations, free for researchers to use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In terms of gene testing, I think patents are of no value, period,” says Nussbaum.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Basis of Biotech\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Patents are a very important, fundamental part of the foundation on which the biotechnology, biopharmaceutical industry has been built,” says Sean Johnston, general counsel at \u003ca href=\"http://www.gene.com/\">Genentech\u003c/a> in South San Francisco, one of the largest biotech companies in the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Companies like Genentech use genetic information to develop drugs and treatments, in addition to genetic diagnostic tests.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Biotech and biopharmaceutical companies have relied upon patent protection to justify the significant investment, the risk-taking and the innovation that is necessary to develop new drugs,” Johnston says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Johnston says it often takes a billion dollars to bring a drug to market, an investment that could be tougher to make without the protection of gene patents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s not a matter that if the court were to rule broadly our business would be destroyed,” Johnston says. “But in theory I think it has the potential to be very disruptive to the industry.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Universities in the Middle\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Biotech companies here aren’t the only ones watching this case. The University of California as a whole is one of the top ten gene patent holders in the country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Universities are often accused of patenting solely for the purpose of getting financial gain,” says Karin Immergluck of UCSF’s Office of Technology Management. The office handles several hundred gene patents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“UCSF’s first goal is to translate our really exciting, cutting-edge technologies into products and services that will benefit the public,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The university walks a fine line. Companies pay millions of dollars a year to use its patents, like the one related to human growth hormone. But the court case brings up issue in licensing patents that universities already grappling with.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“For example, making sure the rights aren’t completely locked up in one company so that underinsured patients don’t have access,” says Immergluck.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Patient access, biotech industry profits and innovation could all be affected by the Supreme Court’s ruling. It’s expected in June.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/52297/bay-area-biotech-industry-braces-for-gene-patenting-court-case","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_5","quest_12"],"tags":["quest_252","quest_9951","quest_475","quest_13194","quest_848","quest_11907","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_13201","quest_11518","quest_13203","quest_11908","quest_2841"],"featImg":"quest_52321","label":"quest"},"quest_38751":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_38751","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"38751","score":null,"sort":[1338217230000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor","title":"Why Your Newfound Uniqueness is a Nightmare for Your Doctor","publishDate":1338217230,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_38754\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/05/28/why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor/humdivinasia/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-38754\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/HumDivInAsia.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"HumDivInAsia\" width=\"640\" height=\"356\" class=\"size-full wp-image-38754\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/HumDivInAsia.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/HumDivInAsia-400x223.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Our surprising genetic diversity will give scientists fits for years.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A couple of new studies confirm what many of us have feared: each of us is surprisingly unique genetically. This is to be feared because of the impact it will have on the future of personalized medicine. Our individual uniqueness will make predicting our risk for disease much trickier than we thought. And it will make finding treatments that much harder too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You’ve probably read that all humans share somewhere between 99.5% and 99.9% of their DNA. Usually this is translated into saying that we have a difference in our DNA every 1000 bases or so. (By bases I mean the A’s, G’s, C’s, and T’s that make up our DNA.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These differences were supposed to be shared by many people. So a lot of people would have a G at a certain position and the rest of us would have a T. The first \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/05/16/science.1217876\">study \u003c/a>shows that this is not the case.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, we all have many rare DNA differences scattered throughout our DNA. When the researchers looked at 202 different genes from 14,002 people, they found a rare variant every 17 bases or so. This is way higher than many people thought.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What’s worse is that these differences aren’t all benign. The other \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/05/21/science.1219240\">study published in \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>\u003c/a> showed that a surprisingly high percentage, around 2.3%, is predicted to significantly impact a gene. In other words, we are all burdened with many gene-altering and so potentially harmful DNA differences. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the world of genetics is getting turned on its head yet again. Not so long ago, the idea was that diseases shared a common set of DNA differences. So everyone with sickle cell anemia had a certain DNA difference (or at least a certain few). Same thing with cystic fibrosis and all the other genetic diseases.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_38759\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 150px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/05/28/why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor/manypaths/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-38759\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/ManyPaths.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"ManyPaths\" width=\"150\" height=\"343\" class=\"size-full wp-image-38759\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">There are many paths to the same illness.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Now it looks like there are many individual paths to a disease. For example, while most cases of cystic fibrosis do involve glitches in the CFTR gene, there are lots of glitches that can cause the disease. And that makes figuring out your chances for getting or passing cystic fibrosis to your children even harder.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many (perhaps even most) of us will have DNA differences in our CFTR genes that haven’t been seen before. We don’t yet know which differences can lead to cystic fibrosis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Believe it or not, cystic fibrosis is the easy case; at least it usually involves just one gene. More complex genetic diseases like Type 2 diabetes or \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/alzheimers-is-the-cure-in-the-genes/\">Alzheimer’s \u003c/a>are going to be complicated by the fact that many different genes can be involved and we are all littered with unique differences in these genes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, there will be a huge set of genes involved in Type 2 diabetes. Each of us will have numerous unique DNA differences strewn throughout these genes. Some of these changes will increase your risk for getting Type 2 diabetes and some will lower your risk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately the way scientists can tell if a difference is involved in a disease is by comparing two large groups of people with and without the disease. If a certain DNA difference turns up more often in the disease group, then it may be involved in causing the disease.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But now everyone has lots of unique DNA differences, many of which can contribute to disease. The people in the disease group won’t share a lot of the same differences that lead to disease. This means it is going to be hard to figure out which differences matter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our best bet may be to figure out as much DNA from as many people as possible so we can at least start to get a handle on which genes are involved in a particular disease. Then we can start to explore which DNA differences matter and which ones don’t. One thing is for sure, this is going to take awhile to sort out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencecodex.com/knowing_genetic_makeup_may_not_significantly_improve_disease_risk_prediction-92164\">\u003cem>This\u003c/em> \u003c/a>\u003cem>came out after I wrote the blog. More evidence that knowing our DNA may not help us out as much as we had hoped.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"A couple of new studies confirm what many of us have feared: each of us is surprisingly unique genetically. This is to be feared because of the impact it will have on the future of personalized medicine. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1340306592,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":718},"headData":{"title":"Why Your Newfound Uniqueness is a Nightmare for Your Doctor | KQED","description":"A couple of new studies confirm what many of us have feared: each of us is surprisingly unique genetically. This is to be feared because of the impact it will have on the future of personalized medicine. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Why Your Newfound Uniqueness is a Nightmare for Your Doctor","datePublished":"2012-05-28T15:00:30.000Z","dateModified":"2012-06-21T19:23:12.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"38751 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=38751","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/05/28/why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor/","disqusTitle":"Why Your Newfound Uniqueness is a Nightmare for Your Doctor","path":"/quest/38751/why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_38754\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/05/28/why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor/humdivinasia/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-38754\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/HumDivInAsia.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"HumDivInAsia\" width=\"640\" height=\"356\" class=\"size-full wp-image-38754\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/HumDivInAsia.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/HumDivInAsia-400x223.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Our surprising genetic diversity will give scientists fits for years.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A couple of new studies confirm what many of us have feared: each of us is surprisingly unique genetically. This is to be feared because of the impact it will have on the future of personalized medicine. Our individual uniqueness will make predicting our risk for disease much trickier than we thought. And it will make finding treatments that much harder too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You’ve probably read that all humans share somewhere between 99.5% and 99.9% of their DNA. Usually this is translated into saying that we have a difference in our DNA every 1000 bases or so. (By bases I mean the A’s, G’s, C’s, and T’s that make up our DNA.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These differences were supposed to be shared by many people. So a lot of people would have a G at a certain position and the rest of us would have a T. The first \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/05/16/science.1217876\">study \u003c/a>shows that this is not the case.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, we all have many rare DNA differences scattered throughout our DNA. When the researchers looked at 202 different genes from 14,002 people, they found a rare variant every 17 bases or so. This is way higher than many people thought.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What’s worse is that these differences aren’t all benign. The other \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/05/21/science.1219240\">study published in \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>\u003c/a> showed that a surprisingly high percentage, around 2.3%, is predicted to significantly impact a gene. In other words, we are all burdened with many gene-altering and so potentially harmful DNA differences. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the world of genetics is getting turned on its head yet again. Not so long ago, the idea was that diseases shared a common set of DNA differences. So everyone with sickle cell anemia had a certain DNA difference (or at least a certain few). Same thing with cystic fibrosis and all the other genetic diseases.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_38759\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 150px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/05/28/why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor/manypaths/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-38759\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/ManyPaths.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"ManyPaths\" width=\"150\" height=\"343\" class=\"size-full wp-image-38759\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">There are many paths to the same illness.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Now it looks like there are many individual paths to a disease. For example, while most cases of cystic fibrosis do involve glitches in the CFTR gene, there are lots of glitches that can cause the disease. And that makes figuring out your chances for getting or passing cystic fibrosis to your children even harder.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many (perhaps even most) of us will have DNA differences in our CFTR genes that haven’t been seen before. We don’t yet know which differences can lead to cystic fibrosis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Believe it or not, cystic fibrosis is the easy case; at least it usually involves just one gene. More complex genetic diseases like Type 2 diabetes or \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/alzheimers-is-the-cure-in-the-genes/\">Alzheimer’s \u003c/a>are going to be complicated by the fact that many different genes can be involved and we are all littered with unique differences in these genes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, there will be a huge set of genes involved in Type 2 diabetes. Each of us will have numerous unique DNA differences strewn throughout these genes. Some of these changes will increase your risk for getting Type 2 diabetes and some will lower your risk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately the way scientists can tell if a difference is involved in a disease is by comparing two large groups of people with and without the disease. If a certain DNA difference turns up more often in the disease group, then it may be involved in causing the disease.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But now everyone has lots of unique DNA differences, many of which can contribute to disease. The people in the disease group won’t share a lot of the same differences that lead to disease. This means it is going to be hard to figure out which differences matter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our best bet may be to figure out as much DNA from as many people as possible so we can at least start to get a handle on which genes are involved in a particular disease. Then we can start to explore which DNA differences matter and which ones don’t. One thing is for sure, this is going to take awhile to sort out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencecodex.com/knowing_genetic_makeup_may_not_significantly_improve_disease_risk_prediction-92164\">\u003cem>This\u003c/em> \u003c/a>\u003cem>came out after I wrote the blog. More evidence that knowing our DNA may not help us out as much as we had hoped.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/38751/why-your-newfound-uniqueness-a-nightmare-for-your-doctor","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_12"],"tags":["quest_838","quest_3546","quest_1192","quest_11155","quest_1197","quest_3974","quest_13202","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_38754","label":"quest"},"quest_34892":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_34892","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"34892","score":null,"sort":[1334588417000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"divining-human-history-with-dna","title":"Divining Human History with DNA","publishDate":1334588417,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34895\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/16/divining-human-history-with-dna/twocows/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34895\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/TwoCows.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"TwoCows\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-34895\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/TwoCows.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/TwoCows-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cow DNA tells us domestication is an incredibly difficult undertaking.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Everyone knows about how genetics is changing how we look at and treat human disease. But what may be less appreciated is what it can tell us about human history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From studying human genetics, we know that all humans \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/03/03/tracing-the-travels-of-the-human-race/\">started out in Africa\u003c/a>. We also know that early humans interbred with \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=128\">Neanderthals \u003c/a>and \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=136\">Denisovans \u003c/a>before wiping them out. Now a \u003ca href=\"http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/03/14/molbev.mss092.abstract?sid=daaf90dc-65de-4981-a7a7-d92b1115b0b6\">new study\u003c/a> looking at cow DNA is teaching us about our agricultural history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists compared DNA from 8,000 year old cow bones to 20 or so different modern cow breeds from all over the world. When they plugged their data into various computer models, the one that made the most sense had modern cows coming from about 80 wild founders around 10,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not only does this help explain why cows all look so much alike, it also tells us that our ancestors only managed to domesticate cows once. This is despite the fact that ancient, wild cows (called aurochs) were wandering all over Africa, Asia, and Europe at the time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The obvious conclusion is that domesticating a cow is really hard. And this makes sense if you think about the animals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, I don’t mean placid Bessie out in the pasture. Ancient cows were huge, ornery creatures that would have been hard to capture alive and hard to breed. Archeological evidence suggests it took hundreds of years or more of breeding to get animals that were smaller and more docile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Archeological evidence also helps us pinpoint where the first domestication probably happened – the Middle East. But because archeological data is often incomplete, it can’t tell us whether this was the only cattle domestication event in human history. We need genetics to confirm this (or at least to confirm that modern cows came from a single domestication event).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Genetics is providing insight into human history that we could not have gotten in any other way. We can see that humans \u003ca href=\"http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/levin/bio311d/articles/WhyHumansAndFur081903.pdf\">lost their fur and gained darker skin\u003c/a> around 1.2 million years ago. And we can see that our \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=330\">original pale skin\u003c/a> from back when we were hairy came back into fashion in Europe about 6000-12,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And cows aren’t the first animal’s DNA to tell us something about ourselves either. By looking at \u003ca href=\"http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jan/08/science/la-sci-lice-clothing-20110108\">lice DNA\u003c/a>, scientists think that humans first started wearing clothes about 170,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is amazing what we can learn about our history from looking at the DNA of ourselves and our associated creatures. Soon we’ll learn even more. As the price of deciphering our DNA goes down, the number of questions we can answer will go up dramatically. The only thing that will keep us back is figuring out the best questions to ask. \u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Everyone knows about how genetics is changing how we look at and treat human disease. But what may be less appreciated is what it can tell us about human history.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1335901311,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":12,"wordCount":480},"headData":{"title":"Divining Human History with DNA | KQED","description":"Everyone knows about how genetics is changing how we look at and treat human disease. But what may be less appreciated is what it can tell us about human history.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Divining Human History with DNA","datePublished":"2012-04-16T15:00:17.000Z","dateModified":"2012-05-01T19:41:51.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"34892 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=34892","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/16/divining-human-history-with-dna/","disqusTitle":"Divining Human History with DNA","path":"/quest/34892/divining-human-history-with-dna","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34895\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/16/divining-human-history-with-dna/twocows/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34895\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/TwoCows.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"TwoCows\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-34895\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/TwoCows.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/TwoCows-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cow DNA tells us domestication is an incredibly difficult undertaking.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Everyone knows about how genetics is changing how we look at and treat human disease. But what may be less appreciated is what it can tell us about human history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From studying human genetics, we know that all humans \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/03/03/tracing-the-travels-of-the-human-race/\">started out in Africa\u003c/a>. We also know that early humans interbred with \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=128\">Neanderthals \u003c/a>and \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=136\">Denisovans \u003c/a>before wiping them out. Now a \u003ca href=\"http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/03/14/molbev.mss092.abstract?sid=daaf90dc-65de-4981-a7a7-d92b1115b0b6\">new study\u003c/a> looking at cow DNA is teaching us about our agricultural history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists compared DNA from 8,000 year old cow bones to 20 or so different modern cow breeds from all over the world. When they plugged their data into various computer models, the one that made the most sense had modern cows coming from about 80 wild founders around 10,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not only does this help explain why cows all look so much alike, it also tells us that our ancestors only managed to domesticate cows once. This is despite the fact that ancient, wild cows (called aurochs) were wandering all over Africa, Asia, and Europe at the time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The obvious conclusion is that domesticating a cow is really hard. And this makes sense if you think about the animals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, I don’t mean placid Bessie out in the pasture. Ancient cows were huge, ornery creatures that would have been hard to capture alive and hard to breed. Archeological evidence suggests it took hundreds of years or more of breeding to get animals that were smaller and more docile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Archeological evidence also helps us pinpoint where the first domestication probably happened – the Middle East. But because archeological data is often incomplete, it can’t tell us whether this was the only cattle domestication event in human history. We need genetics to confirm this (or at least to confirm that modern cows came from a single domestication event).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Genetics is providing insight into human history that we could not have gotten in any other way. We can see that humans \u003ca href=\"http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/levin/bio311d/articles/WhyHumansAndFur081903.pdf\">lost their fur and gained darker skin\u003c/a> around 1.2 million years ago. And we can see that our \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=330\">original pale skin\u003c/a> from back when we were hairy came back into fashion in Europe about 6000-12,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And cows aren’t the first animal’s DNA to tell us something about ourselves either. By looking at \u003ca href=\"http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jan/08/science/la-sci-lice-clothing-20110108\">lice DNA\u003c/a>, scientists think that humans first started wearing clothes about 170,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is amazing what we can learn about our history from looking at the DNA of ourselves and our associated creatures. Soon we’ll learn even more. As the price of deciphering our DNA goes down, the number of questions we can answer will go up dramatically. The only thing that will keep us back is figuring out the best questions to ask. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/34892/divining-human-history-with-dna","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_77","quest_10963","quest_10962","quest_848","quest_10961","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_13202","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_34895","label":"quest"},"quest_28441":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_28441","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"28441","score":null,"sort":[1324920201000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine","title":"We Don’t Want the Funk (in our Wine)","publishDate":1324920201,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28442\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/12/26/we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine/redwine/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-28442\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"RedWine\" width=\"640\" height=\"376\" class=\"size-full wp-image-28442\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine-400x235.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">For now, sulfites are able to kill the yeast that might spoil this wine.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Wine sometimes tastes a bit funky because it was contaminated during fermentation with a yeast called \u003cem>Brettanomyces bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can give wine a \u003ca href=\"http://ajevonline.org/content/57/2/139.full\">variety of interesting flavors\u003c/a> like “…horse sweat, Band Aids, barnyard, and burnt plastic…” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Winemakers usually keep this from happening by killing off the yeast with those dreaded sulfites. But for awhile now, people in the know have been worrying about the emergence of a sulfite-resistant form of this yeast. And this is a well-founded fear.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yeast, like bacteria, are fast growing microorganisms with lots of variation in their DNA. If you hit a population like this with something that kills them (like sulfites for \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> or antibiotics for bacteria), some small percentage are probably going to be resistant. These resistant strains can then grow and replace the sensitive ones. The end result is sulfite-resistant yeast ruining our wines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To try to head off this problem, a group of scientists in Australia has \u003ca href=\"http://www.winebiz.com.au/wvj/\">figured out this yeast’s DNA\u003c/a>. The hope is that scientists will be able to use this data to determine how \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> might evolve into a more resistant form.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Note that despite much trumpeting online, they haven’t really solved any problems with this knowledge yet. They have merely created the tool that might let them solve a potential future problem. And given how cheap and easy DNA sequencing is these days, it isn’t necessarily even an impressive feat of technological prowess.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, it may one day prove useful in allowing winemakers to more quickly defeat a sulfite-resistant strain. Which can only be a good thing for wine making.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don’t want to end this before saying a nice word or two about \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can spoil wines but it isn’t all bad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, it gives Belgian beers their special taste. And some winemakers actively seek it to give their wine a bit of a “\u003ca href=\"http://www.aromadictionary.com/articles/brettanomyces_article.html\">brett\u003c/a>” taste. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, a sulfite-resistant form would definitely be a bad thing for most winemakers. So scientists should definitely stay vigilant and be ready to come up with quick solutions using this new tool (and whatever other ones they can find) when sulfite-resistant \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> begin to appear. \u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Scientists are using DNA sequencing to protect our wines by keeping future sulfite-resistant forms of the yeast Brettanomyces bruxellensis at bay.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1326485653,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":400},"headData":{"title":"We Don’t Want the Funk (in our Wine) | KQED","description":"Scientists are using DNA sequencing to protect our wines by keeping future sulfite-resistant forms of the yeast Brettanomyces bruxellensis at bay.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"We Don’t Want the Funk (in our Wine)","datePublished":"2011-12-26T17:23:21.000Z","dateModified":"2012-01-13T20:14:13.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"28441 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=28441","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/12/26/we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine/","disqusTitle":"We Don’t Want the Funk (in our Wine)","path":"/quest/28441/we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28442\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/12/26/we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine/redwine/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-28442\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"RedWine\" width=\"640\" height=\"376\" class=\"size-full wp-image-28442\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine-400x235.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">For now, sulfites are able to kill the yeast that might spoil this wine.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Wine sometimes tastes a bit funky because it was contaminated during fermentation with a yeast called \u003cem>Brettanomyces bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can give wine a \u003ca href=\"http://ajevonline.org/content/57/2/139.full\">variety of interesting flavors\u003c/a> like “…horse sweat, Band Aids, barnyard, and burnt plastic…” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Winemakers usually keep this from happening by killing off the yeast with those dreaded sulfites. But for awhile now, people in the know have been worrying about the emergence of a sulfite-resistant form of this yeast. And this is a well-founded fear.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yeast, like bacteria, are fast growing microorganisms with lots of variation in their DNA. If you hit a population like this with something that kills them (like sulfites for \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> or antibiotics for bacteria), some small percentage are probably going to be resistant. These resistant strains can then grow and replace the sensitive ones. The end result is sulfite-resistant yeast ruining our wines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To try to head off this problem, a group of scientists in Australia has \u003ca href=\"http://www.winebiz.com.au/wvj/\">figured out this yeast’s DNA\u003c/a>. The hope is that scientists will be able to use this data to determine how \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> might evolve into a more resistant form.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Note that despite much trumpeting online, they haven’t really solved any problems with this knowledge yet. They have merely created the tool that might let them solve a potential future problem. And given how cheap and easy DNA sequencing is these days, it isn’t necessarily even an impressive feat of technological prowess.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, it may one day prove useful in allowing winemakers to more quickly defeat a sulfite-resistant strain. Which can only be a good thing for wine making.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don’t want to end this before saying a nice word or two about \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can spoil wines but it isn’t all bad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, it gives Belgian beers their special taste. And some winemakers actively seek it to give their wine a bit of a “\u003ca href=\"http://www.aromadictionary.com/articles/brettanomyces_article.html\">brett\u003c/a>” taste. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, a sulfite-resistant form would definitely be a bad thing for most winemakers. So scientists should definitely stay vigilant and be ready to come up with quick solutions using this new tool (and whatever other ones they can find) when sulfite-resistant \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> begin to appear. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/28441/we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_10555","quest_10551","quest_10552","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_10557","quest_13202","quest_10554","quest_10556","quest_10553","quest_3319","quest_3171","quest_3831"],"featImg":"quest_28442","label":"quest"},"quest_26725":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_26725","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"26725","score":null,"sort":[1320686328000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"sniffing-out-mr-right","title":"Sniffing Out Mr. Right","publishDate":1320686328,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/07/sniffing-out-mr-right/sniffingdogs/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26726\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/SniffingDogs.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SniffingDogs\" width=\"640\" height=\"357\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-26726\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/SniffingDogs.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/SniffingDogs-400x223.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>Lots of animals pick their mate at least partly by how they smell. And a bunch of studies show that it may not be that different in people. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My favorite ones are those where women \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/09/29/the-nose-knows/\">sniff the shirts of various men\u003c/a> and pick out the ones that smell the best to them. The ones they like best are usually from men whose immune systems are most different from theirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This makes some sense if you think about it. The strongest immune system is a varied one. It can fight off lots of different kinds of bacteria, parasites, and viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And since our immune system is programmed by our genes and our genes come from mom and dad, the more different mom and dad’s genes are, the more varied your immune system will be. So ideally you would choose a mate that would give your children the stronger immune system. That mate would have an immune system very different from yours. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way you might be able to find that particular mate is if different immune systems have different odors. The stinky guys share your immune system; the pleasant smelling ones have a different one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This seems to be what is happening in these armpit smelling experiments. So at least some amount of attraction between people is happening with the nose.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what I found even more interesting was that oral contraceptives mess with this system. Women on the pill tend to prefer the smell of men with similar immune systems. Some scientists think this is because pregnant women prefer family around them and family tends to have a similar immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When I first read this I thought, “Wow, this is going to really mess up future generations’ immune systems. Maybe it even helps to explain the recent rise in allergies and autoimmune diseases.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But then I caught myself and thought a little harder. It is probably not that likely that the recent increases in allergies and autoimmune diseases would have happened so quickly if the pill were the main culprit. And besides, there is undoubtedly more to human mate selection than smell!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We are complicated. There are all sorts of cues that cause someone to fall in love. Pheromones may play a role but they are certainly not the whole story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, some studies use photos and ask women which men are the most attractive. The women in these studies tend to pick men with more similar immune systems (apparently there is some correlation between facial symmetry and the immune system).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And when scientists look at couples who actually have children together, they get mixed results. An \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1000184\">early study\u003c/a> pointed to Europeans having children with partners with different immune system genes. But a \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1000925\">deeper look at that data\u003c/a> and looking at a larger group of couples showed that this didn’t seem to be the case. Differing immune systems had little impact on who women chose to have children with. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most that could be said was that women tended to avoid men with really similar immune systems. A bit similar was OK.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course we could already be seeing the effects of the pill in these studies. Maybe if the women in these studies hadn’t been on the pill when they met their partners, they might have chosen someone with a more dissimilar immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists need to look at people who did not meet while women were on the pill. Then we will have a better idea of how big a role your nose plays in choosing your soul mate. And how worried we should be about the pill’s effect on that selection.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/l_016_08.html\">Nice PBS video about the t-shirt smelling experiments.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Biology may have made it so that women prefer the smell of men with different immune systems from their own. Disturbingly, the pill may turn this on its head so that women like the way men with similar immune systems smell. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1320354005,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":18,"wordCount":628},"headData":{"title":"Sniffing Out Mr. Right | KQED","description":"Biology may have made it so that women prefer the smell of men with different immune systems from their own. Disturbingly, the pill may turn this on its head so that women like the way men with similar immune systems smell. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Sniffing Out Mr. Right","datePublished":"2011-11-07T17:18:48.000Z","dateModified":"2011-11-03T21:00:05.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"26725 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=26725","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/07/sniffing-out-mr-right/","disqusTitle":"Sniffing Out Mr. Right","path":"/quest/26725/sniffing-out-mr-right","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/07/sniffing-out-mr-right/sniffingdogs/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26726\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/SniffingDogs.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SniffingDogs\" width=\"640\" height=\"357\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-26726\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/SniffingDogs.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/SniffingDogs-400x223.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>Lots of animals pick their mate at least partly by how they smell. And a bunch of studies show that it may not be that different in people. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My favorite ones are those where women \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/09/29/the-nose-knows/\">sniff the shirts of various men\u003c/a> and pick out the ones that smell the best to them. The ones they like best are usually from men whose immune systems are most different from theirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This makes some sense if you think about it. The strongest immune system is a varied one. It can fight off lots of different kinds of bacteria, parasites, and viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And since our immune system is programmed by our genes and our genes come from mom and dad, the more different mom and dad’s genes are, the more varied your immune system will be. So ideally you would choose a mate that would give your children the stronger immune system. That mate would have an immune system very different from yours. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way you might be able to find that particular mate is if different immune systems have different odors. The stinky guys share your immune system; the pleasant smelling ones have a different one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This seems to be what is happening in these armpit smelling experiments. So at least some amount of attraction between people is happening with the nose.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what I found even more interesting was that oral contraceptives mess with this system. Women on the pill tend to prefer the smell of men with similar immune systems. Some scientists think this is because pregnant women prefer family around them and family tends to have a similar immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When I first read this I thought, “Wow, this is going to really mess up future generations’ immune systems. Maybe it even helps to explain the recent rise in allergies and autoimmune diseases.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But then I caught myself and thought a little harder. It is probably not that likely that the recent increases in allergies and autoimmune diseases would have happened so quickly if the pill were the main culprit. And besides, there is undoubtedly more to human mate selection than smell!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We are complicated. There are all sorts of cues that cause someone to fall in love. Pheromones may play a role but they are certainly not the whole story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, some studies use photos and ask women which men are the most attractive. The women in these studies tend to pick men with more similar immune systems (apparently there is some correlation between facial symmetry and the immune system).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And when scientists look at couples who actually have children together, they get mixed results. An \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1000184\">early study\u003c/a> pointed to Europeans having children with partners with different immune system genes. But a \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1000925\">deeper look at that data\u003c/a> and looking at a larger group of couples showed that this didn’t seem to be the case. Differing immune systems had little impact on who women chose to have children with. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most that could be said was that women tended to avoid men with really similar immune systems. A bit similar was OK.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course we could already be seeing the effects of the pill in these studies. Maybe if the women in these studies hadn’t been on the pill when they met their partners, they might have chosen someone with a more dissimilar immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists need to look at people who did not meet while women were on the pill. Then we will have a better idea of how big a role your nose plays in choosing your soul mate. And how worried we should be about the pill’s effect on that selection.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/l_016_08.html\">Nice PBS video about the t-shirt smelling experiments.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/26725/sniffing-out-mr-right","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_209","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_1451","quest_10399","quest_10401","quest_10400","quest_10402","quest_13202","quest_10403","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_26726","label":"quest"},"quest_26087":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_26087","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"26087","score":null,"sort":[1319469652000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"will-he-have-my-nose","title":"Will He Have My Nose?","publishDate":1319469652,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26088\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/24/will-he-have-my-nose/silcouple/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26088\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SilCouple.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SilCouple\" width=\"640\" height=\"369\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26088\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SilCouple.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SilCouple-400x231.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Or my eyes? Or my smile? Or…? \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I get these kinds of questions all the time. And except for a few traits, I have to pretty much say I don’t know. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Part of the reason for this is that most traits have not been studied in very much detail. Which makes sense in a world of finite research dollars. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As is right, we spend most of the limited money on trying to understand and find cures for diseases. Very little goes toward figuring out the chances that Junior will have grandpa’s nose.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other big reason we can’t make good predictions is that the genetics behind most traits are surprisingly complex. Except maybe \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=44\">red hair\u003c/a>, there really aren’t any simple dominant-recessive traits. Which means we don’t even have the parents with recessive traits to fall back on!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you probably already know, we have two copies of each of our genes – one from mom and one from dad. These genes can come in different versions and some versions are dominant and some recessive. The dominant ones trump the recessive ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this means is that if you have a recessive trait, then both of your copies of the gene in question should be the recessive version. So if two parents each had a recessive trait, then their child should end up with a recessive trait too. Because that is all the parents have to share.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is why we can predict that two red haired parents will pretty much \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=189\">always have red haired kids\u003c/a> (J.K. Rowling got the Weasleys right!). None of the other traits out there are so simple though.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Numerous studies have shown that \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=372\">ear lobe attachment\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=47\">cleft chin\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=125\">tongue rolling\u003c/a> and whatever else you learned in high school biology are way more complicated than advertised. None of them are a simple, single gene, dominant/recessive trait. Even eye color is complicated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pretty much everyone knows that blue eyes are recessive to brown eyes. And so blue-eyed parents can’t have a brown eyed-child. Heck, one group of scientists even used this as a basis for an \u003ca href=\"http://www.springer.com/about+springer/media/springer+select?SGWID=0-11001-2-804099-0\">evolutionary model\u003c/a>. Too bad it is wrong.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blue-eyed parents can have brown-eyed kids. It isn’t as common as the other way around but it can and does happen. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So it is hard to guess what a child will look like just by seeing the parents. But if we could look at their DNA we could predict what their child might look like, right? No. In fact, we couldn’t predict what \u003cem>they \u003c/em>looked like from their DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>People are often surprised to learn that even if scientists are given a complete genetic readout of a person, they would not be able to predict what he or she looks like. We could guess ethnic background and have a good shot at predicting if they had red hair. And that is pretty much it. Oh, except for eye color.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists are starting to make real progress on figuring out eye color from a person’s DNA. By looking at six different markers \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090309121933.htm\">they can predict\u003c/a> whether someone has blue or brown eyes around 90% of the time. They are only right about hazel, green and other colors about 75% of the time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So you can see that even “simple” eye color takes six genes to make any good predictions. How can anyone make a good prediction just from looking at two brown eyed people? They can’t without a good family history and even then, they can be fooled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And that is with a well-studied trait where we have the markers and understand what is going on. All bets are off for the other traits. For now anyway.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"I get these kinds of questions all the time. And except for a few traits, I have to pretty much say I don’t know. \r\n","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1325108749,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":17,"wordCount":644},"headData":{"title":"Will He Have My Nose? | KQED","description":"I get these kinds of questions all the time. And except for a few traits, I have to pretty much say I don’t know. \r\n","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Will He Have My Nose?","datePublished":"2011-10-24T15:20:52.000Z","dateModified":"2011-12-28T21:45:49.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"26087 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=26087","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/24/will-he-have-my-nose/","disqusTitle":"Will He Have My Nose?","path":"/quest/26087/will-he-have-my-nose","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26088\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/24/will-he-have-my-nose/silcouple/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26088\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SilCouple.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SilCouple\" width=\"640\" height=\"369\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26088\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SilCouple.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SilCouple-400x231.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Or my eyes? Or my smile? Or…? \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I get these kinds of questions all the time. And except for a few traits, I have to pretty much say I don’t know. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Part of the reason for this is that most traits have not been studied in very much detail. Which makes sense in a world of finite research dollars. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As is right, we spend most of the limited money on trying to understand and find cures for diseases. Very little goes toward figuring out the chances that Junior will have grandpa’s nose.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other big reason we can’t make good predictions is that the genetics behind most traits are surprisingly complex. Except maybe \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=44\">red hair\u003c/a>, there really aren’t any simple dominant-recessive traits. Which means we don’t even have the parents with recessive traits to fall back on!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you probably already know, we have two copies of each of our genes – one from mom and one from dad. These genes can come in different versions and some versions are dominant and some recessive. The dominant ones trump the recessive ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this means is that if you have a recessive trait, then both of your copies of the gene in question should be the recessive version. So if two parents each had a recessive trait, then their child should end up with a recessive trait too. Because that is all the parents have to share.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is why we can predict that two red haired parents will pretty much \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=189\">always have red haired kids\u003c/a> (J.K. Rowling got the Weasleys right!). None of the other traits out there are so simple though.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Numerous studies have shown that \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=372\">ear lobe attachment\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=47\">cleft chin\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=125\">tongue rolling\u003c/a> and whatever else you learned in high school biology are way more complicated than advertised. None of them are a simple, single gene, dominant/recessive trait. Even eye color is complicated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pretty much everyone knows that blue eyes are recessive to brown eyes. And so blue-eyed parents can’t have a brown eyed-child. Heck, one group of scientists even used this as a basis for an \u003ca href=\"http://www.springer.com/about+springer/media/springer+select?SGWID=0-11001-2-804099-0\">evolutionary model\u003c/a>. Too bad it is wrong.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blue-eyed parents can have brown-eyed kids. It isn’t as common as the other way around but it can and does happen. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So it is hard to guess what a child will look like just by seeing the parents. But if we could look at their DNA we could predict what their child might look like, right? No. In fact, we couldn’t predict what \u003cem>they \u003c/em>looked like from their DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>People are often surprised to learn that even if scientists are given a complete genetic readout of a person, they would not be able to predict what he or she looks like. We could guess ethnic background and have a good shot at predicting if they had red hair. And that is pretty much it. Oh, except for eye color.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists are starting to make real progress on figuring out eye color from a person’s DNA. By looking at six different markers \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090309121933.htm\">they can predict\u003c/a> whether someone has blue or brown eyes around 90% of the time. They are only right about hazel, green and other colors about 75% of the time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So you can see that even “simple” eye color takes six genes to make any good predictions. How can anyone make a good prediction just from looking at two brown eyed people? They can’t without a good family history and even then, they can be fooled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And that is with a well-studied trait where we have the markers and understand what is going on. All bets are off for the other traits. For now anyway.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/26087/will-he-have-my-nose","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_10284","quest_10290","quest_10288","quest_3549","quest_10292","quest_10289","quest_10286","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_10285","quest_10291","quest_10293","quest_10283","quest_13202","quest_3733","quest_3319","quest_10287"],"featImg":"quest_26088","label":"quest"},"quest_24027":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_24027","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"24027","score":null,"sort":[1315839601000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"turning-chickens-into-dinosaurs","title":"Turning Chickens into Dinosaurs","publishDate":1315839601,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24035\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/dinochicken3.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-24035\" title=\"dinochicken3\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/dinochicken3-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">By reversing evolution, scientists may be able to transform chickens into dinosaurs one step at a time.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>You may remember that in Jurassic Park, scientists sequenced some dinosaur DNA from a mosquito trapped in amber. They made a copy of this DNA, filled in the gaps with frog DNA and then created a dinosaur.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although cool, we're not likely to get dinosaurs this way in the near future for a bunch of different reasons. The biggest for now (besides not having any dinosaur DNA) is that we can’t \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=129\">clone anything bigger than a bacterium\u003c/a> with just a piece of DNA. To clone a multi-celled creature like a dinosaur, we need frozen or even better, live cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While this might be possible for some extinct animals including \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/11/10/mammoth-resurrection/\">mammoths\u003c/a>, 65 million years is just too long to find any frozen or viable cells. But there may be another way to one day create Jurassic Park. By messing with a chicken’s genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Current theories are that birds evolved from dinosaurs. This means that all the information for making a dinosaur was contained in bird DNA at one time. The trick is to figure out what this dinosaur DNA looked like and to change bird DNA accordingly and/or to unlock any hidden dinosaur DNA that may still be in bird DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After 65 million years you might think all traces of dino-DNA would be lost in birds. Surprisingly, you’d be wrong. It looks like there is still some T-rex lurking in a chicken’s DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the last decade, scientists have been able to make chickens look a bit more dinosaur-like by changing how the chickens use the genes they already have. For example, they have been able to make a chicken’s tail look a bit more like a dinosaur’s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big difference between birds and dinosaurs is that dinosaurs have much longer tails. But this doesn’t hold up in a chicken embryo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At a very early stage of development, chicken embryos have what looks like a very reptilian tail with 16 vertebrae. Later in development, though, most of the vertebrae disappear until only five are left.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this means is that if scientists can figure out how to keep the vertebrae from disappearing, they might end up with a long tailed chicken. And they’ve actually managed to sort of do this already.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By changing when certain genes are turned on or off, they have managed to \u003ca href=\"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1026340/Jurassic-Park-comes-true-How-scientists-bringing-dinosaurs-life-help-humble-chicken.html\">create a chicken\u003c/a> with a tail that has eight vertebrae. Not quite a dinosaur but a step in that direction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They have also been able to create a \u003ca href=\"http://dml.cmnh.org/2011Aug/msg00313.html\">chicken with teeth\u003c/a>. And even a \u003ca href=\"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1026340/Jurassic-Park-comes-true-How-scientists-bringing-dinosaurs-life-help-humble-chicken.html\">snout\u003c/a>! All of this without fundamentally changing a chicken’s genes but instead changing how they are used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now they probably won’t be able to make the chicken-dinosaur transition simply by changing how chicken genes are used. There are bound to have been some significant changes in certain key genes that will have to be replicated to really make a dinosaur. And for that we’ll need to figure out what dinosaur DNA looked like.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But still, we can make a lot of progress towards making a dinosaur by simply using the toolkit of current bird genes. In the end, we’ll probably be able to recreate something very much like a dinosaur. The question will then become whether we should.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>QUEST story on how scientists can figure out ancient DNA from modern DNA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"If we are ever going to resurrect dinosaurs, it probably won't be like in the movie Jurassic Park. Instead, we'll have to throw evolution into reverse and turn a bird back into a dinosaur.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1442954658,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":600},"headData":{"title":"Turning Chickens into Dinosaurs | KQED","description":"If we are ever going to resurrect dinosaurs, it probably won't be like in the movie Jurassic Park. Instead, we'll have to throw evolution into reverse and turn a bird back into a dinosaur.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Turning Chickens into Dinosaurs","datePublished":"2011-09-12T15:00:01.000Z","dateModified":"2015-09-22T20:44:18.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"24027 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=24027","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/09/12/turning-chickens-into-dinosaurs/","disqusTitle":"Turning Chickens into Dinosaurs","path":"/quest/24027/turning-chickens-into-dinosaurs","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_24035\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/dinochicken3.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-24035\" title=\"dinochicken3\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/dinochicken3-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">By reversing evolution, scientists may be able to transform chickens into dinosaurs one step at a time.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>You may remember that in Jurassic Park, scientists sequenced some dinosaur DNA from a mosquito trapped in amber. They made a copy of this DNA, filled in the gaps with frog DNA and then created a dinosaur.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although cool, we're not likely to get dinosaurs this way in the near future for a bunch of different reasons. The biggest for now (besides not having any dinosaur DNA) is that we can’t \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=129\">clone anything bigger than a bacterium\u003c/a> with just a piece of DNA. To clone a multi-celled creature like a dinosaur, we need frozen or even better, live cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While this might be possible for some extinct animals including \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/11/10/mammoth-resurrection/\">mammoths\u003c/a>, 65 million years is just too long to find any frozen or viable cells. But there may be another way to one day create Jurassic Park. By messing with a chicken’s genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Current theories are that birds evolved from dinosaurs. This means that all the information for making a dinosaur was contained in bird DNA at one time. The trick is to figure out what this dinosaur DNA looked like and to change bird DNA accordingly and/or to unlock any hidden dinosaur DNA that may still be in bird DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After 65 million years you might think all traces of dino-DNA would be lost in birds. Surprisingly, you’d be wrong. It looks like there is still some T-rex lurking in a chicken’s DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the last decade, scientists have been able to make chickens look a bit more dinosaur-like by changing how the chickens use the genes they already have. For example, they have been able to make a chicken’s tail look a bit more like a dinosaur’s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big difference between birds and dinosaurs is that dinosaurs have much longer tails. But this doesn’t hold up in a chicken embryo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At a very early stage of development, chicken embryos have what looks like a very reptilian tail with 16 vertebrae. Later in development, though, most of the vertebrae disappear until only five are left.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this means is that if scientists can figure out how to keep the vertebrae from disappearing, they might end up with a long tailed chicken. And they’ve actually managed to sort of do this already.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By changing when certain genes are turned on or off, they have managed to \u003ca href=\"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1026340/Jurassic-Park-comes-true-How-scientists-bringing-dinosaurs-life-help-humble-chicken.html\">create a chicken\u003c/a> with a tail that has eight vertebrae. Not quite a dinosaur but a step in that direction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They have also been able to create a \u003ca href=\"http://dml.cmnh.org/2011Aug/msg00313.html\">chicken with teeth\u003c/a>. And even a \u003ca href=\"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1026340/Jurassic-Park-comes-true-How-scientists-bringing-dinosaurs-life-help-humble-chicken.html\">snout\u003c/a>! All of this without fundamentally changing a chicken’s genes but instead changing how they are used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now they probably won’t be able to make the chicken-dinosaur transition simply by changing how chicken genes are used. There are bound to have been some significant changes in certain key genes that will have to be replicated to really make a dinosaur. And for that we’ll need to figure out what dinosaur DNA looked like.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But still, we can make a lot of progress towards making a dinosaur by simply using the toolkit of current bird genes. In the end, we’ll probably be able to recreate something very much like a dinosaur. The question will then become whether we should.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>QUEST story on how scientists can figure out ancient DNA from modern DNA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/24027/turning-chickens-into-dinosaurs","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_10089","quest_10091","quest_10090","quest_848","quest_10092","quest_1032","quest_10094","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_10093","quest_1552","quest_13","quest_10088","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_24035","label":"quest"},"quest_15643":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_15643","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"15643","score":null,"sort":[1311006151000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"autism-more-than-genes","title":"Autism More than Genes","publishDate":1311006151,"format":"standard","headTitle":"Autism More than Genes | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15649\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/IdenticalTwins2.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/IdenticalTwins2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IdenticalTwins2\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15649\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists studied twins like these to figure out that genetics accounts for about 37% of autism. Image courtesy of Jeff Balke.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003c/p>\u003cp>Scientists have known that autism is a combination of genes and the environment for a long time. But the focus has been on genes because early twin studies suggested that autism was mostly genetic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists looked at sets of identical and fraternal twins to see how often both twins in a pair had autism. Remember, identical twins have the exact same DNA whereas fraternal twins only share as much DNA as any other siblings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If autism were purely genetic, then both identical twins in a pair should either have it or not. It should be very rare for one twin in a pair to have autism and the other to not have autism. Fraternal twins should have it at about the same rate as any other siblings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But if autism were purely environmental, then both twins in an identical or fraternal twin pair should get it at about the same rate. Depending on what part of the environment is causing the problem, this rate might be higher than that of siblings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A study back in the 1970’s found that both twins in an identical pair had autism 72% of the time and that both fraternal twins never had it at the same time. This is where the 90% heritability for autism number came from.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fact that fraternal twins never both had autism was weird from the start. Scientists knew that if one sibling had autism, the risk for the other siblings was anywhere from 3-14% which is higher than the general risk. Fraternal twins are siblings and so there should probably be some increased risk too. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a new \u003ca href=\"http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/archgenpsychiatry.2011.76\">study\u003c/a>, scientists did a more extensive study on 192 twin pairs and arrived at very different results. In this study, male identical twins both had autism 58% of the time and male fraternal twins both had autism 21% of the time. (Female numbers were similar.) These numbers suggest that genetics accounts for about 37% of autism. Still significant but nowhere near 90%!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this study holds up, it means is that scientists can start looking at environmental effects. They’ve ruled out vaccines as a cause but there are lots of other possibilities. And many of these may happen before the child is even born.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, it may be that like Down syndrome or schizophrenia, parents’ age is a factor. Or it may be that diseases mom might have had or chemicals she might have been exposed to while pregnant could increase chances for autism. Or a host of other possibilities might be responsible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What is important to keep in mind is that if scientists can identify an environmental cause, they can try to keep expectant mothers away. Or try to ameliorate the effects. In many cases, this will be much easier to deal with than genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more, read \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=49\">Sometimes autism that looks environmental can be genetic\u003c/a> from Undestanding Genetics.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"A new twin study suggests that the environment may play a bigger role in autism than scientists previously thought.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1684974040,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":510},"headData":{"title":"Autism More than Genes | KQED","description":"A new twin study suggests that the environment may play a bigger role in autism than scientists previously thought.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Autism More than Genes","datePublished":"2011-07-18T16:22:31.000Z","dateModified":"2023-05-25T00:20:40.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"templateType":"standard","featuredImageType":"standard","excludeFromSiteSearch":"Include","articleAge":"0","path":"/quest/15643/autism-more-than-genes","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15649\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/IdenticalTwins2.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/IdenticalTwins2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IdenticalTwins2\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15649\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists studied twins like these to figure out that genetics accounts for about 37% of autism. Image courtesy of Jeff Balke.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003c/p>\u003cp>Scientists have known that autism is a combination of genes and the environment for a long time. But the focus has been on genes because early twin studies suggested that autism was mostly genetic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists looked at sets of identical and fraternal twins to see how often both twins in a pair had autism. Remember, identical twins have the exact same DNA whereas fraternal twins only share as much DNA as any other siblings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If autism were purely genetic, then both identical twins in a pair should either have it or not. It should be very rare for one twin in a pair to have autism and the other to not have autism. Fraternal twins should have it at about the same rate as any other siblings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But if autism were purely environmental, then both twins in an identical or fraternal twin pair should get it at about the same rate. Depending on what part of the environment is causing the problem, this rate might be higher than that of siblings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A study back in the 1970’s found that both twins in an identical pair had autism 72% of the time and that both fraternal twins never had it at the same time. This is where the 90% heritability for autism number came from.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fact that fraternal twins never both had autism was weird from the start. Scientists knew that if one sibling had autism, the risk for the other siblings was anywhere from 3-14% which is higher than the general risk. Fraternal twins are siblings and so there should probably be some increased risk too. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a new \u003ca href=\"http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/archgenpsychiatry.2011.76\">study\u003c/a>, scientists did a more extensive study on 192 twin pairs and arrived at very different results. In this study, male identical twins both had autism 58% of the time and male fraternal twins both had autism 21% of the time. (Female numbers were similar.) These numbers suggest that genetics accounts for about 37% of autism. Still significant but nowhere near 90%!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this study holds up, it means is that scientists can start looking at environmental effects. They’ve ruled out vaccines as a cause but there are lots of other possibilities. And many of these may happen before the child is even born.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, it may be that like Down syndrome or schizophrenia, parents’ age is a factor. Or it may be that diseases mom might have had or chemicals she might have been exposed to while pregnant could increase chances for autism. Or a host of other possibilities might be responsible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What is important to keep in mind is that if scientists can identify an environmental cause, they can try to keep expectant mothers away. Or try to ameliorate the effects. In many cases, this will be much easier to deal with than genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more, read \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=49\">Sometimes autism that looks environmental can be genetic\u003c/a> from Undestanding Genetics.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/15643/autism-more-than-genes","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_256","quest_9731","quest_9732","quest_13198","quest_9733","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_9734","quest_9735","quest_1944","quest_9736","quest_13","quest_9737","quest_3015"],"featImg":"quest_15649","label":"quest"},"quest_19244":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_19244","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"19244","score":null,"sort":[1308587263000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"the-cloud-in-the-silver-lining","title":"The Cloud in the Silver Lining","publishDate":1308587263,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/SilverLining.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>My lower risk for Alzheimer's may be the silver lining\u003cbr>to being e2/e2 at APOE.\u003cbr>Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Silver_Lining.JPG\">ImUnicke\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When last I left you in my \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/05/23/uncovering-risk-one-gene-at-a-time/\">personal genomic journey\u003c/a>, I had just discovered that I was e2/e2 at the APOE gene. I was quietly giddy* about this as it meant I was at a lower risk for getting Alzheimer’s. And even more importantly, it meant I didn’t have e4 which would have significantly increased my chances of getting this form of dementia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Digging a bit deeper I found some more good news. People with e2/e2 usually have lower levels of LDL, the bad cholesterol that increases the risk for a heart attack. This is consistent with my low levels of LDL. Two good effects from one allele!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there are no free lunches in genetics. For example, having two copies of the delta32 version of the CCR5 gene makes you \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/online/ugenetics/ask.php?id=336\">pretty resistant to HIV infection\u003c/a>. But it makes you more susceptible to the West Nile Virus. Having one copy of the sickle cell version of the hemoglobin gene makes you \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/online/ugenetics/ask.php?id=271\">resistant to malaria\u003c/a>. But your kids might end up with full blown sickle cell anemia. And so on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The e2 version of the APOE gene is no different. It makes me less likely to get Alzheimer’s and, most of the time, to have a heart attack. But it means that I can end up with higher triglycerides from what I eat. This is consistent with what I have seen at the doctor’s. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Triglycerides are actually an independent predictor of heart attack risk. So even though my LDL is low, I need to watch my diet to keep the triglycerides down. If I am not careful, my increased triglycerides might cancel out my decreased LDL and so change my reduced heart attack risk to an increased one. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Being e2/e2 also puts me at risk for a relatively rare disease called \u003ca href=\"http://www.kimballgenetics.com/tests-apo_e.html\">hyperlipoproteinemia type III\u003c/a> (HLP type 3). One reason this disease is rare is because being e2/e2 is rare. For example, only around 0.4% of people of European background have this genetic combination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But HLP type 3 is obviously more common for me since I am in that 0.4% group already. Still, only 2% of e2/e2 people end up with HLP type 3 so it is a low risk for me. I decided to look into it anyway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This disease has various symptoms but the most worrisome ones for me are increased risk of heart attack and abnormal glucose tolerance. My fasting glucose levels are stubbornly high whenever I take my yearly blood test. Which makes me wonder if this genetic difference is affecting my glucose tolerance and I am on my way to HLP type 3.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, lots of genetic differences are involved in establishing someone’s glucose tolerance. And the environment plays a role too. So my glucose tolerance might have nothing to do with me starting to get HLP type 3.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, I am definitely going to ask my doctor about it at my next visit. It is rare but there are specific blood tests I can ask for that can tell me if I have this condition. Who’d have thought that a lowered risk of Alzheimer’s would only be a silver lining…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>*\u003cem>Well, more of a measured giddiness. I know this is just one of the many genes involved in Alzheimer’s but still, it was good news\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.3393857 -121.8949555\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"There are no free lunches in genetics. Having a certain version of a gene may protect you from one thing, but make you susceptible to another.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1308587263,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":598},"headData":{"title":"The Cloud in the Silver Lining | KQED","description":"There are no free lunches in genetics. Having a certain version of a gene may protect you from one thing, but make you susceptible to another.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"The Cloud in the Silver Lining","datePublished":"2011-06-20T16:27:43.000Z","dateModified":"2011-06-20T16:27:43.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"19244 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/06/20/the-cloud-in-the-silver-lining/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/20/the-cloud-in-the-silver-lining/","disqusTitle":"The Cloud in the Silver Lining","path":"/quest/19244/the-cloud-in-the-silver-lining","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/SilverLining.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>My lower risk for Alzheimer's may be the silver lining\u003cbr>to being e2/e2 at APOE.\u003cbr>Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Silver_Lining.JPG\">ImUnicke\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When last I left you in my \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/05/23/uncovering-risk-one-gene-at-a-time/\">personal genomic journey\u003c/a>, I had just discovered that I was e2/e2 at the APOE gene. I was quietly giddy* about this as it meant I was at a lower risk for getting Alzheimer’s. And even more importantly, it meant I didn’t have e4 which would have significantly increased my chances of getting this form of dementia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Digging a bit deeper I found some more good news. People with e2/e2 usually have lower levels of LDL, the bad cholesterol that increases the risk for a heart attack. This is consistent with my low levels of LDL. Two good effects from one allele!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there are no free lunches in genetics. For example, having two copies of the delta32 version of the CCR5 gene makes you \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/online/ugenetics/ask.php?id=336\">pretty resistant to HIV infection\u003c/a>. But it makes you more susceptible to the West Nile Virus. Having one copy of the sickle cell version of the hemoglobin gene makes you \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/online/ugenetics/ask.php?id=271\">resistant to malaria\u003c/a>. But your kids might end up with full blown sickle cell anemia. And so on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The e2 version of the APOE gene is no different. It makes me less likely to get Alzheimer’s and, most of the time, to have a heart attack. But it means that I can end up with higher triglycerides from what I eat. This is consistent with what I have seen at the doctor’s. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Triglycerides are actually an independent predictor of heart attack risk. So even though my LDL is low, I need to watch my diet to keep the triglycerides down. If I am not careful, my increased triglycerides might cancel out my decreased LDL and so change my reduced heart attack risk to an increased one. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Being e2/e2 also puts me at risk for a relatively rare disease called \u003ca href=\"http://www.kimballgenetics.com/tests-apo_e.html\">hyperlipoproteinemia type III\u003c/a> (HLP type 3). One reason this disease is rare is because being e2/e2 is rare. For example, only around 0.4% of people of European background have this genetic combination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But HLP type 3 is obviously more common for me since I am in that 0.4% group already. Still, only 2% of e2/e2 people end up with HLP type 3 so it is a low risk for me. I decided to look into it anyway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This disease has various symptoms but the most worrisome ones for me are increased risk of heart attack and abnormal glucose tolerance. My fasting glucose levels are stubbornly high whenever I take my yearly blood test. Which makes me wonder if this genetic difference is affecting my glucose tolerance and I am on my way to HLP type 3.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, lots of genetic differences are involved in establishing someone’s glucose tolerance. And the environment plays a role too. So my glucose tolerance might have nothing to do with me starting to get HLP type 3.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, I am definitely going to ask my doctor about it at my next visit. It is rare but there are specific blood tests I can ask for that can tell me if I have this condition. Who’d have thought that a lowered risk of Alzheimer’s would only be a silver lining…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>*\u003cem>Well, more of a measured giddiness. I know this is just one of the many genes involved in Alzheimer’s but still, it was good news\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.3393857 -121.8949555\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/19244/the-cloud-in-the-silver-lining","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_134","quest_135","quest_3458","quest_3546","quest_3553","quest_3555","quest_1192","quest_1197","quest_1332","quest_3610","quest_2162","quest_3804"],"featImg":"quest_15236","label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. 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