Small Rewards: Tiny Frogs and Chameleons Find and Fill a Niche
Cycads: No Longer "Living Fossils"
Diversity in the Animal Kingdom
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are considered \"living fossils\", unchanged from the days when Jurassic dinosaurs fed upon them. New research has found that today's cycads are much younger than that. Specimen in Strybing Arboretum in Golden Gate Park. Photo courtesy {link url=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/tantek/\"}Tantek Çla;elik{/link} of Flickr under Creative Commons license.","credit":null,"description":null,"imgSizes":{"thumbnail":{"file":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-400x225.jpg","width":400,"height":225,"mimeType":"image/jpeg"},"guest-author-32":{"file":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-32x32.jpg","width":32,"height":32,"mimeType":"image/jpeg"},"guest-author-64":{"file":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-64x64.jpg","width":64,"height":64,"mimeType":"image/jpeg"},"guest-author-96":{"file":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-96x96.jpg","width":96,"height":96,"mimeType":"image/jpeg"},"guest-author-128":{"file":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-128x128.jpg","width":128,"height":128,"mimeType":"image/jpeg"},"detail":{"file":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-75x75.jpg","width":75,"height":75,"mimeType":"image/jpeg"},"kqedFullSize":{"file":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF.jpg","width":640,"height":360}},"fetchFailed":false,"isLoading":false}},"audioPlayerReducer":{"postId":"stream_live"},"authorsReducer":{"andrew-alden":{"type":"authors","id":"6228","meta":{"index":"authors_1591205172","id":"6228","found":true},"name":"Andrew Alden","firstName":"Andrew","lastName":"Alden","slug":"andrew-alden","email":"alden@andrew-alden.com","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"Andrew Alden earned his geology degree at the University of New Hampshire and moved back to the Bay Area to work at the U.S. Geological Survey for six years. 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She was a 2013 recipient of the NYU Reporting Award, a 2013 Dennis Hunt Health Journalism fellow and a 2015 USC Data Journalism fellow.\r\n\r\nRead her \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/lizagross/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/1f7d36efc78088d63466cef5f10c4c7a?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"stateofhealth","roles":["author"]},{"site":"science","roles":["author"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Liza Gross | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/1f7d36efc78088d63466cef5f10c4c7a?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/1f7d36efc78088d63466cef5f10c4c7a?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/lizagross"},"cat":{"type":"authors","id":"10173","meta":{"index":"authors_1591205172","id":"10173","found":true},"name":"Cat","firstName":"Cat","lastName":"Aboudara","slug":"cat","email":"caboudara@calacademy.org","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"Cathleen (Cat) is the former \u003cstrong>Special Projects Manager at California Academy of Sciences\u003c/strong> and worked in the public programs division.\r\nBefore working at the Academy, Cat got her start as an intern at \u003ca href=\"http://www.wildlife-museum.org/\">Lindsay Wildlife Museum\u003c/a> for four years and worked with animals ranging from snakes and hawks to foxes and bobcats. She has a deep curiosity about the natural world and native California wildlife.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/1db01bf4502e099faeb0628c5015e81f?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Cat | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/1db01bf4502e099faeb0628c5015e81f?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/1db01bf4502e099faeb0628c5015e81f?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/cat"}},"breakingNewsReducer":{},"campaignFinanceReducer":{},"firebase":{"requesting":{},"requested":{},"timestamps":{},"data":{},"ordered":{},"auth":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"authError":null,"profile":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"listeners":{"byId":{},"allIds":[]},"isInitializing":false,"errors":[]},"navBarReducer":{"navBarId":"home","fullView":true,"showPlayer":false},"navMenuReducer":{"menus":[{"key":"menu1","items":[{"name":"News","link":"/","type":"title"},{"name":"Politics","link":"/politics"},{"name":"Science","link":"/science"},{"name":"Education","link":"/educationnews"},{"name":"Housing","link":"/housing"},{"name":"Immigration","link":"/immigration"},{"name":"Criminal Justice","link":"/criminaljustice"},{"name":"Silicon Valley","link":"/siliconvalley"},{"name":"Forum","link":"/forum"},{"name":"The California Report","link":"/californiareport"}]},{"key":"menu2","items":[{"name":"Arts & Culture","link":"/arts","type":"title"},{"name":"Critics’ Picks","link":"/thedolist"},{"name":"Cultural Commentary","link":"/artscommentary"},{"name":"Food & Drink","link":"/food"},{"name":"Bay Area Hip-Hop","link":"/bayareahiphop"},{"name":"Rebel Girls","link":"/rebelgirls"},{"name":"Arts Video","link":"/artsvideos"}]},{"key":"menu3","items":[{"name":"Podcasts","link":"/podcasts","type":"title"},{"name":"Bay Curious","link":"/podcasts/baycurious"},{"name":"Rightnowish","link":"/podcasts/rightnowish"},{"name":"The Bay","link":"/podcasts/thebay"},{"name":"On Our Watch","link":"/podcasts/onourwatch"},{"name":"Mindshift","link":"/podcasts/mindshift"},{"name":"Consider This","link":"/podcasts/considerthis"},{"name":"Political Breakdown","link":"/podcasts/politicalbreakdown"}]},{"key":"menu4","items":[{"name":"Live Radio","link":"/radio","type":"title"},{"name":"TV","link":"/tv","type":"title"},{"name":"Events","link":"/events","type":"title"},{"name":"For Educators","link":"/education","type":"title"},{"name":"Support KQED","link":"/support","type":"title"},{"name":"About","link":"/about","type":"title"},{"name":"Help Center","link":"https://kqed-helpcenter.kqed.org/s","type":"title"}]}]},"pagesReducer":{},"postsReducer":{"stream_live":{"type":"live","id":"stream_live","audioUrl":"https://streams.kqed.org/kqedradio","title":"Live Stream","excerpt":"Live Stream information currently unavailable.","link":"/radio","featImg":"","label":{"name":"KQED Live","link":"/"}},"stream_kqedNewscast":{"type":"posts","id":"stream_kqedNewscast","audioUrl":"https://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/RDnews/newscast.mp3?_=1","title":"KQED Newscast","featImg":"","label":{"name":"88.5 FM","link":"/"}},"quest_33547":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_33547","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"33547","score":null,"sort":[1332375711000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche","title":"Small Rewards: Tiny Frogs and Chameleons Find and Fill a Niche ","publishDate":1332375711,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/lizard-for-carousel-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33560\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-33560\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/lizard-for-carousel1-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recent discoveries of a Lilliputian lizard and elfin amphibian, fascinating in their own right, highlight one of the most enduring questions in biology: what controls the evolution of body size? Why do some taxa grow smaller and smaller, while others grow larger and larger, as if they’d tumbled down the rabbit hole with Alice and devoured all the curious potions and cakes she found there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question endures in large part because body size affects nearly every aspect of an organism’s existence, from physiology (temperature regulation and metabolism) to ecology (life history and foraging strategies) and evolution (reproductive success over time).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more than a century, biologists thought evolutionary taxa, or lineages, grew larger and larger over time, a phenomenon known as \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GzpiPe\">Cope’s Rule\u003c/a>, illustrated most often by horse evolution. Modern equids, scientists believe, evolved from the diminutive \u003ca href=\"http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/vertpaleo/fhc/hyraco1.htm\">\u003cem>Hyracotherium\u003c/em> \u003c/a>(commonly known as eohippus, or “dawn horse”), which appeared in the fossil record some 55 million years ago. Many textbooks mistakenly liken \u003cem>Hydracotherium\u003c/em> to a fox terrier (think Asta of \u003cem>The Thin Man\u003c/em> movies), but the ancestral horse was more Lassie than Asta, as Stephen Jay Gould famously explained in his essay \"The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33551\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 343px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/hyracotheriumvasacciensislikehorse/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33551\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33551\" title=\"Hyracotherium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/HyracotheriumVasacciensisLikeHorse-343x253.jpg\" alt=\"Hyracotherium, ancestral horse\" width=\"343\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A replica skeleton of Hydracotherium vasacciensis, the putative ancestral horse, at the Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. (Photo: Jeff Kubina)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In 1997, though, David Jablonski showed that (as usual) biology rarely follows hard and fast rules. In a 10-year review of fossils covering 16 million years and 1,000 species from 191 lineages of bivalves (clams and scallops) and gastropods (snails and slugs), Jablonski found that just as many taxa \u003ca href=\"http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/970123/jablonski.shtml\">decreased in body size\u003c/a> over time as increased. And even the horse example has come under fire. A \u003ca href=\"http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~wayner/Principles%20of%20Ecology%20course/island%20morphological%20adaptation.pdf\">2004 study\u003c/a> analyzed horse fossils in light of recently resolved relationships among evolutionary groups and showed that while the lineage that gave rise to the modern horse grew larger, others shrank.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, examples of lineages evolving toward larger body size abound, with \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GBYvMe\">evidence \u003c/a> linking greater size to higher fitness (better survival and mating success for individuals). If you’re big (say, a lion or other large carnivore), it’s easier to catch prey, avoid predation (though elephants, like mammoths before them, may perish at the hands of human hunters), survive tough conditions, attract mates (silverback gorillas claim exclusive breeding rights to females), and claim more resources than your competitors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Given the advantages of size, one might think the tiny frog and chameleon are simply freaks, outliers among a field of giants. But the fossil record offers plenty of examples of large animals shrinking over millennia (known as “phyletic dwarfism”), often after winding up on islands or other restricted ranges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until about 10,000 years ago, dwarf elephants inhabited Crete and other Mediterranean islands, which favored smaller, nimbler forms that could survive on less food and manage the rocky terrain. Even dwarf mammoths (the oxymoron notwithstanding), dinosaurs, and hominids (\u003cem>Homo floresiensis\u003c/em>) once inhabited isolated islands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’re small, you might reproduce quickly, offer too little reward for a predator’s effort, and maybe even prove too hard to see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33552\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/paratype_of_paedophryne_amauensis_lsumz_95004/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33552\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33552\" title=\"Paedophryne amauensis\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Paratype_of_Paedophryne_amauensis_LSUMZ_95004-253x253.png\" alt=\"Dwarf frog \" width=\"253\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paedophryne amauensis, a minute frog found in Papua New Guinea, may be the smallest vertebrate on Earth. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029797)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That seems to be the case for a pint-sized amphibian found, through no small effort, in the forests of Papua New Guinea, which its discoverers claimed as the “world’s smallest vertebrate.” Because the largest vertebrate, the blue whale, and (previously) smallest, a fish, are aquatic species, some biologists thought a water-based lifestyle may facilitate the evolution of extreme size. But, as the scientists argue in the \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/zgsaBs\">paper\u003c/a> describing the frog, this doesn’t explain how extreme miniaturization evolved at least 11 times in terrestrial frogs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The 7-8 millimeter frog, named \u003cem>Paedophryne amauensis,\u003c/em> is active mostly at dawn and dusk, sounding more like a cricket than a frog when it calls out to potential mates from the leafy detritus of the forest floor. (The authors dubbed the species “amauensis” after the region near Amau Village where it was found.) Leaf litter in tropical forests stays moist throughout the year, keeping the minute amphibian safe from desiccation and likely explaining the evolution of its life history: offspring bypass the tadpole stage, emerging fully formed, though even tinier, avoiding fish, insects, and other aquatic predators. Of course, teeny adults would be at higher risk from predators if they lived in the water, too, which might explain why the species carved out a niche in upland areas with a lower diversity of such threats.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33573\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 281px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33573\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33573\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head2-281x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"281\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Brookesia micra, one of four dwarf leaf chameleon species found in Madagascar. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031314)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>And just last month, another group of researchers \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GFDRgN\">reported\u003c/a> their discovery of four new species of dwarf chameleons, one so small it can balance on the tip of a match head. The mini chameleon, \u003cem>Brookesia micra,\u003c/em> measures a smidgen over an inch from snout to tail, and seems restricted to Nosy Hara, a small (naturally) island off the coast of Madagascar. An extensive survey of Nosy Hara and adjacent islands in 2007 failed to spot the little lizard, which scampers around limestone rocks and dry forest leaf litter during the day and roosts on low-lying branches a few inches above the ground at night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike their amphibian counterparts, the minuscule reptiles inhabit relatively dry tropical areas. Because small body size carries a higher risk of desiccation from the proportionally higher body surface area, it’s surprising the lizards live in a dry environment, the scientists explain in their report. It’s possible they’ve adapted to certain features of the landscape that retain moisture, like leaf-filled fissures in limestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tiny frog and chameleons may or may not win the title for smallest of their kind, but the distinction is beside the point. The discovery of these new species offers a rare ray of hope amid ongoing reports of devastating declines in amphibian and reptile populations around the world, mostly due to habitat destruction. These dwarf species have likely benefited from minimal space and resource requirements, and being too tiny to spot. And for me, it’s no small comfort to know that we can still find wonders, both beautiful and strange, on this side of the looking glass.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Recent discoveries of a Lilliputian lizard and elfin amphibian, fascinating in their own right, highlight one of the most enduring questions in biology: what controls the evolution of body size? They also provide a rare bright spot amid the relentless reports of endangered and disappearing amphibian and reptile species around the world.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1366751017,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":1090},"headData":{"title":"Small Rewards: Tiny Frogs and Chameleons Find and Fill a Niche | KQED","description":"Recent discoveries of a Lilliputian lizard and elfin amphibian, fascinating in their own right, highlight one of the most enduring questions in biology: what controls the evolution of body size? They also provide a rare bright spot amid the relentless reports of endangered and disappearing amphibian and reptile species around the world.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"33547 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=33547","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/","disqusTitle":"Small Rewards: Tiny Frogs and Chameleons Find and Fill a Niche ","path":"/quest/33547/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/lizard-for-carousel-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33560\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-33560\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/lizard-for-carousel1-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recent discoveries of a Lilliputian lizard and elfin amphibian, fascinating in their own right, highlight one of the most enduring questions in biology: what controls the evolution of body size? Why do some taxa grow smaller and smaller, while others grow larger and larger, as if they’d tumbled down the rabbit hole with Alice and devoured all the curious potions and cakes she found there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question endures in large part because body size affects nearly every aspect of an organism’s existence, from physiology (temperature regulation and metabolism) to ecology (life history and foraging strategies) and evolution (reproductive success over time).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more than a century, biologists thought evolutionary taxa, or lineages, grew larger and larger over time, a phenomenon known as \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GzpiPe\">Cope’s Rule\u003c/a>, illustrated most often by horse evolution. Modern equids, scientists believe, evolved from the diminutive \u003ca href=\"http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/vertpaleo/fhc/hyraco1.htm\">\u003cem>Hyracotherium\u003c/em> \u003c/a>(commonly known as eohippus, or “dawn horse”), which appeared in the fossil record some 55 million years ago. Many textbooks mistakenly liken \u003cem>Hydracotherium\u003c/em> to a fox terrier (think Asta of \u003cem>The Thin Man\u003c/em> movies), but the ancestral horse was more Lassie than Asta, as Stephen Jay Gould famously explained in his essay \"The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33551\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 343px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/hyracotheriumvasacciensislikehorse/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33551\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33551\" title=\"Hyracotherium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/HyracotheriumVasacciensisLikeHorse-343x253.jpg\" alt=\"Hyracotherium, ancestral horse\" width=\"343\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A replica skeleton of Hydracotherium vasacciensis, the putative ancestral horse, at the Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. (Photo: Jeff Kubina)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In 1997, though, David Jablonski showed that (as usual) biology rarely follows hard and fast rules. In a 10-year review of fossils covering 16 million years and 1,000 species from 191 lineages of bivalves (clams and scallops) and gastropods (snails and slugs), Jablonski found that just as many taxa \u003ca href=\"http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/970123/jablonski.shtml\">decreased in body size\u003c/a> over time as increased. And even the horse example has come under fire. A \u003ca href=\"http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~wayner/Principles%20of%20Ecology%20course/island%20morphological%20adaptation.pdf\">2004 study\u003c/a> analyzed horse fossils in light of recently resolved relationships among evolutionary groups and showed that while the lineage that gave rise to the modern horse grew larger, others shrank.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, examples of lineages evolving toward larger body size abound, with \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GBYvMe\">evidence \u003c/a> linking greater size to higher fitness (better survival and mating success for individuals). If you’re big (say, a lion or other large carnivore), it’s easier to catch prey, avoid predation (though elephants, like mammoths before them, may perish at the hands of human hunters), survive tough conditions, attract mates (silverback gorillas claim exclusive breeding rights to females), and claim more resources than your competitors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Given the advantages of size, one might think the tiny frog and chameleon are simply freaks, outliers among a field of giants. But the fossil record offers plenty of examples of large animals shrinking over millennia (known as “phyletic dwarfism”), often after winding up on islands or other restricted ranges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until about 10,000 years ago, dwarf elephants inhabited Crete and other Mediterranean islands, which favored smaller, nimbler forms that could survive on less food and manage the rocky terrain. Even dwarf mammoths (the oxymoron notwithstanding), dinosaurs, and hominids (\u003cem>Homo floresiensis\u003c/em>) once inhabited isolated islands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’re small, you might reproduce quickly, offer too little reward for a predator’s effort, and maybe even prove too hard to see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33552\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/paratype_of_paedophryne_amauensis_lsumz_95004/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33552\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33552\" title=\"Paedophryne amauensis\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Paratype_of_Paedophryne_amauensis_LSUMZ_95004-253x253.png\" alt=\"Dwarf frog \" width=\"253\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paedophryne amauensis, a minute frog found in Papua New Guinea, may be the smallest vertebrate on Earth. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029797)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That seems to be the case for a pint-sized amphibian found, through no small effort, in the forests of Papua New Guinea, which its discoverers claimed as the “world’s smallest vertebrate.” Because the largest vertebrate, the blue whale, and (previously) smallest, a fish, are aquatic species, some biologists thought a water-based lifestyle may facilitate the evolution of extreme size. But, as the scientists argue in the \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/zgsaBs\">paper\u003c/a> describing the frog, this doesn’t explain how extreme miniaturization evolved at least 11 times in terrestrial frogs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The 7-8 millimeter frog, named \u003cem>Paedophryne amauensis,\u003c/em> is active mostly at dawn and dusk, sounding more like a cricket than a frog when it calls out to potential mates from the leafy detritus of the forest floor. (The authors dubbed the species “amauensis” after the region near Amau Village where it was found.) Leaf litter in tropical forests stays moist throughout the year, keeping the minute amphibian safe from desiccation and likely explaining the evolution of its life history: offspring bypass the tadpole stage, emerging fully formed, though even tinier, avoiding fish, insects, and other aquatic predators. Of course, teeny adults would be at higher risk from predators if they lived in the water, too, which might explain why the species carved out a niche in upland areas with a lower diversity of such threats.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33573\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 281px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33573\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33573\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head2-281x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"281\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Brookesia micra, one of four dwarf leaf chameleon species found in Madagascar. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031314)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>And just last month, another group of researchers \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GFDRgN\">reported\u003c/a> their discovery of four new species of dwarf chameleons, one so small it can balance on the tip of a match head. The mini chameleon, \u003cem>Brookesia micra,\u003c/em> measures a smidgen over an inch from snout to tail, and seems restricted to Nosy Hara, a small (naturally) island off the coast of Madagascar. An extensive survey of Nosy Hara and adjacent islands in 2007 failed to spot the little lizard, which scampers around limestone rocks and dry forest leaf litter during the day and roosts on low-lying branches a few inches above the ground at night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike their amphibian counterparts, the minuscule reptiles inhabit relatively dry tropical areas. Because small body size carries a higher risk of desiccation from the proportionally higher body surface area, it’s surprising the lizards live in a dry environment, the scientists explain in their report. It’s possible they’ve adapted to certain features of the landscape that retain moisture, like leaf-filled fissures in limestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tiny frog and chameleons may or may not win the title for smallest of their kind, but the distinction is beside the point. The discovery of these new species offers a rare ray of hope amid ongoing reports of devastating declines in amphibian and reptile populations around the world, mostly due to habitat destruction. These dwarf species have likely benefited from minimal space and resource requirements, and being too tiny to spot. And for me, it’s no small comfort to know that we can still find wonders, both beautiful and strange, on this side of the looking glass.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/33547/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche","authors":["6322"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_9"],"tags":["quest_148","quest_326","quest_3309","quest_921","quest_980","quest_1033","quest_1049","quest_10859","quest_3351","quest_3307","quest_2349","quest_13202","quest_2415"],"featImg":"quest_33553","label":"quest"},"quest_26006":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_26006","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"26006","score":null,"sort":[1319133653000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"cycads-no-longer-living-fossils","title":"Cycads: No Longer \"Living Fossils\"","publishDate":1319133653,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/20/cycads-no-longer-living-fossils/cycadsf/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26007\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"cycadSF\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26007\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Living fossil\" is a term for species alive today that have been unchanged for millions of years. Among the animals, the horseshoe crab is considered a classic example, looking just like its remotest ancestor from early Paleozoic times.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Among the plants, people often cite the cycads: a line of fernlike, cone-bearing shrubs that have looked the same since the Permian Period nearly 300 million years ago. Their heyday was in the Jurassic, but today they have dwindled to about 300 species in 11 genera, still with the same old looks and lifestyle. However, in a new paper just published in \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencexpress.org/\">Science Express\u003c/a>\u003c/em>, a team led by UC Berkeley paleobotanist \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/about/profile.php?lastname=Nagalingum&firstname=Nathalie\">Nathalie Nagalingum\u003c/a> used genetic methods to show that nearly all of today's cycad species are actually quite young. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nagalingum, whose team included five other plant specialists, tested two independent gene lines in 199 different cycad species to estimate the speed and timing of their evolution. They also used fossil cycads to calibrate the genetic results, yielding a pair of \"timetrees\" of cycad evolution. The timetrees show just six slender stems, representing ancestral cycad lineages, that extend from the deeper past beyond the end of the Mesozoic Era (and the dinosaurs) 65 million years ago. The stems burst into thick bundles of twigs, like the explosion of skyrockets, much later in geologic time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This news overturns a favorite theory that today's cycad species inherit their characteristics from evolutionary pressures during the days when dinosaurs browsed upon them. Today's species instead arose in the late Miocene, about 10 to 5 million years ago. Nagalingum's team surmises that the reason was rearrangements of the continents that interrupted tropical ocean currents, causing the world to have stronger seasons. Even though the cycads responded to this change with a burst of speciation, two-thirds of existing cycad species are nevertheless on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.iucnredlist.org/\">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species\u003c/a>. They don't have good tools to thrive in today's colder, drier world. Call them victims of plate tectonics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This research means that cycads aren't really living fossils—relict species bearing the marks of a world now vanished—but ordinary twigs on the bushy tree of life. Only one line of cycads does appear to date from the dinosaur age, little changed to this day: \u003cem>Bowenia spectabilis\u003c/em> and \u003cem>B. serrulata\u003c/em>, of coastal Queensland, Australia. That's not enough to support the dinosaur-browsing theory, but \u003ci>Bowenia\u003c/i> leaves are commonly used in the floral trade for an echo of ages past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/20/cycads-no-longer-living-fossils/cycaduc/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26026\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadUC.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"cycadUC\" width=\"600\" height=\"478\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26026\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadUC.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadUC-400x319.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can visit a variety of cycads in \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfbotanicalgarden.org/\">Strybing Arboretum\u003c/a> in Golden Gate Park and in the \u003ca href=\"http://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/\">UC Berkeley Botanical Garden\u003c/a>, among other places.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Cycads are considered \"living fossils,\" unchanged from the days when Jurassic dinosaurs fed upon them. New research shows that today's cycads are much younger than that.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1325108771,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":10,"wordCount":447},"headData":{"title":"Cycads: No Longer \"Living Fossils\" | KQED","description":"Cycads are considered "living fossils," unchanged from the days when Jurassic dinosaurs fed upon them. New research shows that today's cycads are much younger than that.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"26006 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=26006","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/20/cycads-no-longer-living-fossils/","disqusTitle":"Cycads: No Longer \"Living Fossils\"","path":"/quest/26006/cycads-no-longer-living-fossils","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/20/cycads-no-longer-living-fossils/cycadsf/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26007\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"cycadSF\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26007\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadSF-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Living fossil\" is a term for species alive today that have been unchanged for millions of years. Among the animals, the horseshoe crab is considered a classic example, looking just like its remotest ancestor from early Paleozoic times.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Among the plants, people often cite the cycads: a line of fernlike, cone-bearing shrubs that have looked the same since the Permian Period nearly 300 million years ago. Their heyday was in the Jurassic, but today they have dwindled to about 300 species in 11 genera, still with the same old looks and lifestyle. However, in a new paper just published in \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencexpress.org/\">Science Express\u003c/a>\u003c/em>, a team led by UC Berkeley paleobotanist \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/about/profile.php?lastname=Nagalingum&firstname=Nathalie\">Nathalie Nagalingum\u003c/a> used genetic methods to show that nearly all of today's cycad species are actually quite young. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nagalingum, whose team included five other plant specialists, tested two independent gene lines in 199 different cycad species to estimate the speed and timing of their evolution. They also used fossil cycads to calibrate the genetic results, yielding a pair of \"timetrees\" of cycad evolution. The timetrees show just six slender stems, representing ancestral cycad lineages, that extend from the deeper past beyond the end of the Mesozoic Era (and the dinosaurs) 65 million years ago. The stems burst into thick bundles of twigs, like the explosion of skyrockets, much later in geologic time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This news overturns a favorite theory that today's cycad species inherit their characteristics from evolutionary pressures during the days when dinosaurs browsed upon them. Today's species instead arose in the late Miocene, about 10 to 5 million years ago. Nagalingum's team surmises that the reason was rearrangements of the continents that interrupted tropical ocean currents, causing the world to have stronger seasons. Even though the cycads responded to this change with a burst of speciation, two-thirds of existing cycad species are nevertheless on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.iucnredlist.org/\">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species\u003c/a>. They don't have good tools to thrive in today's colder, drier world. Call them victims of plate tectonics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This research means that cycads aren't really living fossils—relict species bearing the marks of a world now vanished—but ordinary twigs on the bushy tree of life. Only one line of cycads does appear to date from the dinosaur age, little changed to this day: \u003cem>Bowenia spectabilis\u003c/em> and \u003cem>B. serrulata\u003c/em>, of coastal Queensland, Australia. That's not enough to support the dinosaur-browsing theory, but \u003ci>Bowenia\u003c/i> leaves are commonly used in the floral trade for an echo of ages past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/20/cycads-no-longer-living-fossils/cycaduc/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26026\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadUC.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"cycadUC\" width=\"600\" height=\"478\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26026\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadUC.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/cycadUC-400x319.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can visit a variety of cycads in \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfbotanicalgarden.org/\">Strybing Arboretum\u003c/a> in Golden Gate Park and in the \u003ca href=\"http://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/\">UC Berkeley Botanical Garden\u003c/a>, among other places.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/26006/cycads-no-longer-living-fossils","authors":["6228"],"categories":["quest_11"],"tags":["quest_10278","quest_10279","quest_1033","quest_13202","quest_2488","quest_3021"],"featImg":"quest_26007","label":"quest"},"quest_6408":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_6408","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"6408","score":null,"sort":[1278006552000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"diversity-in-the-animal-kingdom","title":"Diversity in the Animal Kingdom","publishDate":1278006552,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/07/FileTwo-Banana-Slugs300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Banana Slugs are hermaphrodites, which means they are an animal that has both female and male reproductive parts\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Forty and Fabulous is the theme for Pride this year. San Francisco’s Pride Celebration and Parade has been going strong since 1970. Pride recognizes and celebrates the diversity that has put San Francisco on the map. NightLife at the California Academy of Sciences kicked off the Pride weekend with some help from Juanita MORE, Verasphere, SF Cheer and Jane Tollini. In prepping for the festivities and specifically Jane Tollini’s talk – “How Animals Get Down”, I had to research a specific Academy animal and its claim to fame.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Below are a few of the tidbits I’ve learned about in my tenure at the Academy which prove equally intriguing:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most popular docent cart at NightLife is the baculum cart. Baculums are penis bones that are found in most mammals. They range in sizes depending on the mammal and aid in sexual intercourse. One of the largest Baculums belong to the walrus and Alaskan native Americans would polish and carve these baculums for clubs or knife handles. They are known is there culture as Oosik. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Banana Slugs are hermaphrodites, which means they are an animal that has both female and male reproductive parts. In some cases of mating, a male reproductive member will become stuck; if this happens it is chewed off and discarded; thus making the slug a female.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is a species of Cichlids called the Cross Dressing Cichlids. In this species there are three sexes – a dominant male, a non-dominant male and a female. The beta male resembles the female and when the alpha male is protecting his female harem the beta male will mate with the females. It is also interesting to note males can change between dominant and non-dominant. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clownfish live in small groups in a single anemone. They are one of only a few species of fish that are immune to the anemone’s toxicity. Within a group of Clownfish there is a breeding pair that cohabitate with smaller non-breeding males. When the female dies, the dominant male changes sex and becomes the female. This strategy is defined as sequential hermaphroditism. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Penguins like most birds, reptiles and amphibians reproduce by what’s known as a cloacal kiss. The cloaca is a single orifice that is used for many functions; namely, urinating, defecating and mating. Thus, both male and female penguins have cloacas. Mating is achieved by bringing the cloacas together to touch.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Often it is very difficult to sex a snake as all the reproductive parts are internal. Biologists will use a special probe to determine the sex of a snake in captivity. Males have two members that protrude during mating calling hemepenes. Other than during mating, it is hard to tell the difference between a male and female. I learned this the hard way when I went to pull out a Ball Python for an outreach program. It was curled around its cage mate and I realized too late that they were mating when I interrupted! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have often heard that homosexuality is not natural. Yet is has been observed, researched, and documented in many species - so has sex changes, several sexes in one species, hermaphrodites, harems, polygamy and sexual cannibalism. An interesting article was written up in the New York Times entitled, \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/04/magazine/04animals-t.html\">Can Animals Be Gay\u003c/a>?\" If you are interested in learning more about the diversity of reproduction methods in the animal kingdom and why this diversity is needed; these two books are great:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Tatiana's Sex Advice to All Creation: The Definitive Guide to the Evolutionary Biology of Sex by Olivia Judson \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People by Joan Roughgarden\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7699 -122.467174\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"I have often heard that homosexuality is not natural. Yet is has been observed, researched, and documented in many species - so has sex changes, several sexes in one species, hermaphrodites, harems, polygamy and sexual cannibalism.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1278006552,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":643},"headData":{"title":"Diversity in the Animal Kingdom | KQED","description":"I have often heard that homosexuality is not natural. Yet is has been observed, researched, and documented in many species - so has sex changes, several sexes in one species, hermaphrodites, harems, polygamy and sexual cannibalism.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"6408 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2010/07/01/diversity-in-the-animal-kingdom/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/07/01/diversity-in-the-animal-kingdom/","disqusTitle":"Diversity in the Animal Kingdom","path":"/quest/6408/diversity-in-the-animal-kingdom","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/07/FileTwo-Banana-Slugs300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Banana Slugs are hermaphrodites, which means they are an animal that has both female and male reproductive parts\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Forty and Fabulous is the theme for Pride this year. San Francisco’s Pride Celebration and Parade has been going strong since 1970. Pride recognizes and celebrates the diversity that has put San Francisco on the map. NightLife at the California Academy of Sciences kicked off the Pride weekend with some help from Juanita MORE, Verasphere, SF Cheer and Jane Tollini. In prepping for the festivities and specifically Jane Tollini’s talk – “How Animals Get Down”, I had to research a specific Academy animal and its claim to fame.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Below are a few of the tidbits I’ve learned about in my tenure at the Academy which prove equally intriguing:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most popular docent cart at NightLife is the baculum cart. Baculums are penis bones that are found in most mammals. They range in sizes depending on the mammal and aid in sexual intercourse. One of the largest Baculums belong to the walrus and Alaskan native Americans would polish and carve these baculums for clubs or knife handles. They are known is there culture as Oosik. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Banana Slugs are hermaphrodites, which means they are an animal that has both female and male reproductive parts. In some cases of mating, a male reproductive member will become stuck; if this happens it is chewed off and discarded; thus making the slug a female.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is a species of Cichlids called the Cross Dressing Cichlids. In this species there are three sexes – a dominant male, a non-dominant male and a female. The beta male resembles the female and when the alpha male is protecting his female harem the beta male will mate with the females. It is also interesting to note males can change between dominant and non-dominant. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clownfish live in small groups in a single anemone. They are one of only a few species of fish that are immune to the anemone’s toxicity. Within a group of Clownfish there is a breeding pair that cohabitate with smaller non-breeding males. When the female dies, the dominant male changes sex and becomes the female. This strategy is defined as sequential hermaphroditism. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Penguins like most birds, reptiles and amphibians reproduce by what’s known as a cloacal kiss. The cloaca is a single orifice that is used for many functions; namely, urinating, defecating and mating. Thus, both male and female penguins have cloacas. Mating is achieved by bringing the cloacas together to touch.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Often it is very difficult to sex a snake as all the reproductive parts are internal. Biologists will use a special probe to determine the sex of a snake in captivity. Males have two members that protrude during mating calling hemepenes. Other than during mating, it is hard to tell the difference between a male and female. I learned this the hard way when I went to pull out a Ball Python for an outreach program. It was curled around its cage mate and I realized too late that they were mating when I interrupted! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have often heard that homosexuality is not natural. Yet is has been observed, researched, and documented in many species - so has sex changes, several sexes in one species, hermaphrodites, harems, polygamy and sexual cannibalism. An interesting article was written up in the New York Times entitled, \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/04/magazine/04animals-t.html\">Can Animals Be Gay\u003c/a>?\" If you are interested in learning more about the diversity of reproduction methods in the animal kingdom and why this diversity is needed; these two books are great:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Tatiana's Sex Advice to All Creation: The Definitive Guide to the Evolutionary Biology of Sex by Olivia Judson \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People by Joan Roughgarden\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7699 -122.467174\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/6408/diversity-in-the-animal-kingdom","authors":["10173"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_1033","quest_1179","quest_1180","quest_1391","quest_1766","quest_2601"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. 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And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.","airtime":"THU 10pm, FRI 1am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Commonwealth Club of California"},"link":"/radio/program/commonwealth-club","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Commonwealth-Club-of-California-p1060/"}},"considerthis":{"id":"considerthis","title":"Consider This","tagline":"Make sense of the day","info":"Make sense of the day. Every weekday afternoon, Consider This helps you consider the major stories of the day in less than 15 minutes, featuring the reporting and storytelling resources of NPR. 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