Science on the SPOT: Up all Night with SOFIA, NASA's Flying Observatory
Up All Night on NASA's Flying Telescope
Mars Rock Talks, Opportunity Listens
Engineering the Planet
Weather Mystery: Warm Rain and Icy Hail?
Living in the Sun's Atmosphere
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Gravel covers the input pipes to muffle wind. Image courtesy The Official CTBTO Photostream\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49822\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/infrasound.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/infrasound-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Infrasound array at Tristan da Cunha. Gravel covers the input pipes to muffle wind. Image courtesy The Official CTBTO Photostream\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When North Korea conducted its third nuclear explosion on February 12, the global nuclear police, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization, detected it immediately and soon afterward released its evidence. Most people probably know that the CTBTO uses seismometers to detect these forbidden explosions, but it also relies on instruments that monitor infrasound: sound that is too low in frequency for us to hear. Stations in Japan and \u003cdel datetime=\"2013-02-22T18:03:23+00:00\">China \u003c/del>Russia recorded the superdeep bass roar of the bomb as it arrived from North Korea through the air, not the ground. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Three days later came the big meteor explosion in Russia. That was high in the atmosphere, not underground, and it gave infrasound its chance to shine. The tremendous shock wave that shattered the windows of Chelyabinsk spread over the world and was recorded by 17 of the CTBTO's 45 infrasound stations, even one in Antarctica. (The CTBTO has issued the record from the Antarctic station, \u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-8ij80vs1E\">sped up 135 times to make it audible.\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Atom bombs and meteors are just part of the subject, though—all sorts of things create infrasound, both natural and human. Natural sources include volcanoes, wind tumbling over mountain ranges, heavy surf, auroras, tornadoes, landslides, earthquakes and of course meteors. Human sources include vehicle traffic of all kinds, rocket launches, sonic booms, quarry blasts, military bombardments and of course nuclear explosions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The lower limit of human hearing—the deepest bass notes of thunder or big church organ pipes—is a frequency of about 20 hertz, and infrasound goes from about 20 Hz down to perhaps 0.001 Hz, or one cycle in a thousand seconds. Anything slower than that is more meteorology than acoustics! Infrasound includes ordinary sound-type pressure waves as well as gravity waves, which are like ripples in a pond only in the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Infrasound waves are called microbaroms in the literature. It takes special large instruments to detect them, like the one shown in the photo. The flowerlike apparatus is a set of thin pipes that minimizes the noise of wind, arranged around a pressure sensor. The best instruments are networked arrays of these, scattered over an area measured in acres. Even so, infrasound arrays are put in remote places to avoid the noises of civilization. In California, UC San Diego has a \u003ca href=\"http://l2a.ucsd.edu/\">strong infrasound program\u003c/a> that includes \u003ca href=\"http://l2a.ucsd.edu/L2A_arrayinfo.php\">research arrays\u003c/a> near Temecula, Santa Margarita and Chico. It also runs one of the official CTBTO infrasound sites, near Palm Springs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Science awoke to the potential of infrasound back in 1883, when the enormous eruption of Krakatoa sent waves through the air that registered on barometers around the world. But I first read about infrasound in Robert Heinlein's 1941 novel \u003ci>The Day After Tomorrow\u003c/i> (also known as \u003ci>Sixth Column\u003c/i>), in which \"subsonic\" vibrations were used to induce feelings of terror in an enemy delegation. If I recall correctly, the frequency used was 14 Hz. There is something uncanny about sound that can't be heard, and there is a strong flavor of paranoia around the subject in some circles. High levels of infrasound do have health effects, particularly because the vibrations rattle the whole organism, not just the ears. More benignly, elephants and whales are known to perceive and produce infrasound. And \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/infrasonics/a/birdsound.htm\">one intriguing line of research\u003c/a> suggests that migratory birds use infrasound for navigation as a sonic map of the regional landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty gave a big boost to infrasound research. In addition to its well-known seismometers and radiation monitors, \u003ca href=\"http://www.ctbto.org/map/#ims\">the CTBTO's worldwide network of sensors\u003c/a> includes a planned total of 60 infrasound stations, of which 45 are working today. (A network of hydrophones, to monitor the seas, is the fourth component.) The United States Senate has still not ratified the treaty, although \u003ca href=\"http://www.ctbto.org/member-states/country-profiles/?country=34&cHash=2a8d71d449c1396faae0a2060b03391a\">Chad did just this month\u003c/a>. President Clinton signed the treaty on September 24, 1996, but ever since then the Senate has failed to do its part. It would be nice if it did, and soon.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Last week's events pushed the obscure subject of infrasound into the news. That was music to my science-obsessed ears.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1362707212,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":9,"wordCount":685},"headData":{"title":"Infrasound Takes a Bow | KQED","description":"Last week's events pushed the obscure subject of infrasound into the news. That was music to my science-obsessed ears.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Infrasound Takes a Bow","datePublished":"2013-02-21T17:09:52.000Z","dateModified":"2013-03-08T01:46:52.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"49820 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=49820","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/21/infrasound-takes-a-bow/","disqusTitle":"Infrasound Takes a Bow","path":"/quest/49820/infrasound-takes-a-bow","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49822\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/21/infrasound-takes-a-bow/infrasound/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49822\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/infrasound.jpg\" alt=\"Infrasound array at Tristan da Cunha. Gravel covers the input pipes to muffle wind. Image courtesy The Official CTBTO Photostream\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49822\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/infrasound.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/infrasound-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Infrasound array at Tristan da Cunha. Gravel covers the input pipes to muffle wind. Image courtesy The Official CTBTO Photostream\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When North Korea conducted its third nuclear explosion on February 12, the global nuclear police, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization, detected it immediately and soon afterward released its evidence. Most people probably know that the CTBTO uses seismometers to detect these forbidden explosions, but it also relies on instruments that monitor infrasound: sound that is too low in frequency for us to hear. Stations in Japan and \u003cdel datetime=\"2013-02-22T18:03:23+00:00\">China \u003c/del>Russia recorded the superdeep bass roar of the bomb as it arrived from North Korea through the air, not the ground. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Three days later came the big meteor explosion in Russia. That was high in the atmosphere, not underground, and it gave infrasound its chance to shine. The tremendous shock wave that shattered the windows of Chelyabinsk spread over the world and was recorded by 17 of the CTBTO's 45 infrasound stations, even one in Antarctica. (The CTBTO has issued the record from the Antarctic station, \u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-8ij80vs1E\">sped up 135 times to make it audible.\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Atom bombs and meteors are just part of the subject, though—all sorts of things create infrasound, both natural and human. Natural sources include volcanoes, wind tumbling over mountain ranges, heavy surf, auroras, tornadoes, landslides, earthquakes and of course meteors. Human sources include vehicle traffic of all kinds, rocket launches, sonic booms, quarry blasts, military bombardments and of course nuclear explosions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The lower limit of human hearing—the deepest bass notes of thunder or big church organ pipes—is a frequency of about 20 hertz, and infrasound goes from about 20 Hz down to perhaps 0.001 Hz, or one cycle in a thousand seconds. Anything slower than that is more meteorology than acoustics! Infrasound includes ordinary sound-type pressure waves as well as gravity waves, which are like ripples in a pond only in the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Infrasound waves are called microbaroms in the literature. It takes special large instruments to detect them, like the one shown in the photo. The flowerlike apparatus is a set of thin pipes that minimizes the noise of wind, arranged around a pressure sensor. The best instruments are networked arrays of these, scattered over an area measured in acres. Even so, infrasound arrays are put in remote places to avoid the noises of civilization. In California, UC San Diego has a \u003ca href=\"http://l2a.ucsd.edu/\">strong infrasound program\u003c/a> that includes \u003ca href=\"http://l2a.ucsd.edu/L2A_arrayinfo.php\">research arrays\u003c/a> near Temecula, Santa Margarita and Chico. It also runs one of the official CTBTO infrasound sites, near Palm Springs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Science awoke to the potential of infrasound back in 1883, when the enormous eruption of Krakatoa sent waves through the air that registered on barometers around the world. But I first read about infrasound in Robert Heinlein's 1941 novel \u003ci>The Day After Tomorrow\u003c/i> (also known as \u003ci>Sixth Column\u003c/i>), in which \"subsonic\" vibrations were used to induce feelings of terror in an enemy delegation. If I recall correctly, the frequency used was 14 Hz. There is something uncanny about sound that can't be heard, and there is a strong flavor of paranoia around the subject in some circles. High levels of infrasound do have health effects, particularly because the vibrations rattle the whole organism, not just the ears. More benignly, elephants and whales are known to perceive and produce infrasound. And \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/infrasonics/a/birdsound.htm\">one intriguing line of research\u003c/a> suggests that migratory birds use infrasound for navigation as a sonic map of the regional landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty gave a big boost to infrasound research. In addition to its well-known seismometers and radiation monitors, \u003ca href=\"http://www.ctbto.org/map/#ims\">the CTBTO's worldwide network of sensors\u003c/a> includes a planned total of 60 infrasound stations, of which 45 are working today. (A network of hydrophones, to monitor the seas, is the fourth component.) The United States Senate has still not ratified the treaty, although \u003ca href=\"http://www.ctbto.org/member-states/country-profiles/?country=34&cHash=2a8d71d449c1396faae0a2060b03391a\">Chad did just this month\u003c/a>. President Clinton signed the treaty on September 24, 1996, but ever since then the Senate has failed to do its part. It would be nice if it did, and soon.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/49820/infrasound-takes-a-bow","authors":["6228"],"categories":["quest_11","quest_16"],"tags":["quest_10513","quest_246","quest_11738","quest_1799","quest_11739","quest_13202"],"featImg":"quest_49822","label":"quest"},"quest_40021":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_40021","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"40021","score":null,"sort":[1340825456000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"science-on-the-spot-sofia-observatory","title":"Science on the SPOT: Up all Night with SOFIA, NASA's Flying Observatory","publishDate":1340825456,"format":"video","headTitle":"Science on the SPOT | QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"term":3296,"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>Seen from the exterior with its rear canopy closed, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/SOFIA/\">Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)\u003c/a> aircraft looks much like a typical jumbo jet you might see at any airport-- perhaps even reminiscent of another well-known, heavily modified Boeing 747, Air Force One. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"SOFIA has a lot of characteristics that are very similar to a normal passenger airplane,\" explains Erick Young, Director of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/index.html\">SOFIA Science Center\u003c/a> at NASA/Ames Research Center in Mountain View, CA. \"Except for the fact that we’ve completely gutted the insides, and there’s a hole in the side of the airplane the size of a garage door, and there’s a 17-ton telescope mounted in the back. But other than that it’s pretty much like a regular airplane.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It may appear modest from the outside, but SOFIA is more than a telescope tucked into a re-purposed commercial airliner. Obscured from view is a complete flying astronomical observation platform centered around a 2.7 meter-wide \u003ca href=\"http://science.howstuffworks.com/telescope3.htm\">reflecting telescope\u003c/a>, which carries a dozen or more astronomers, observers and crew \u003ca href=\"http://airs.jpl.nasa.gov/maps/satellite_feed/atmosphere_layers/\">above the clouds\u003c/a> to observe objects and phenomena too cold to be seen in visible light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40032\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 315px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/WS301_SOFIA_young.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/WS301_SOFIA_young.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"WS301_SOFIA_young\" width=\"315\" height=\"177\" class=\"size-full wp-image-40032\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Erick Young is the Director of the SOFIA Science Center, and is responsible for the airplane crew and science operations of the observatory. Credit: NASA / Tom Tschida.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\"The appearance of things that we can see in visible light is primarily because things are hot enough to give off light at visible light wavelengths,\" says Young. \" If you get things too cold, then things look redder and redder and eventually they’re so red that the human eye can’t see them anymore. And then what we are actually sensing is a different kind of light and it’s called infrared. And that’s basically the heat radiation that’s coming from objects. And so what we can look at are not things that are thousands of degrees hot, but things that are hundreds or tens of degrees above absolute zero. And it turns out that there’s a lot of material in the universe- the dust, planets like the Earth, clouds in space. They’re all too cold to normally emit in visible light, but by looking in the infrared, we’re able to sense them, detect them, and measure their properties.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our most familiar instrument for observing and measuring the electromagnetic radiation emitted by objects, the human eye, senses a narrow range of energy wavelengths. These are waves with wavelengths of 380 nanometers (violet) to about 740 nanometers (red). Although astronomy has its origin in observing the universe in this part of the spectrum, there are also telescopes and instruments that measure incredibly short, energetic wavelengths such as Gamma rays and X-rays, as well as extremely long wavelengths such as radio waves. Infrared or \"IR\" astronomers study that expansive swath of wavelengths just below the visible range, but still above the radio end of the spectrum. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">\u003cimg alt=\"\" src=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/ems_length_final.gif\" class=\"aligncenter\" width=\"619\" height=\"147\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003csmall>Source: \u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">NASA\u003c/a>\u003c/small>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But why go through the trouble of \u003ca href=\"http://ericfdiaz.wordpress.com/why-does-infrared-astronomy-matters/\">observing objects in the IR spectrum\u003c/a> from the stratosphere, 12+ kilometers above the surface of the earth? There are several major infrared telescopes operating both on the ground and in space: at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/\">Mauna Kea Observatories\u003c/a> in Hawaii, or \u003ca href=\"http://www.noao.edu/kpno/\">Kitt Peak National Observatory\u003c/a> in Arizona, for example.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We put a telescope on the airplane because there are parts of the spectrum which are completely blocked and completely opaque in the Earth’s atmosphere. This was primarily in the infrared part of the spectrum,\" explains Young. \"The main thing that blocks the infrared light from reaching the ground is water vapor in the Earth’s atmosphere. And if we want to observe many of these wavelengths, we have to get to some place where there’s no water vapor and SOFIA will fly above more than 99% of the water vapor in the atmosphere.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Flying telescopes may not be commonplace, but are hardly a new idea. SOFIA is merely the latest and largest in a \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Edu/docs/97-Whiting_AeroHistory.pdf\">line of airborne observatories\u003c/a> going back to the 1920's, when eclipse chasers first carried a modest instrument aboard a 2-seater biplane. SOFIA's most recent ancestor is the the \u003ca href=\"http://science.nasa.gov/missions/kao/\">Kuiper Airborne observatory (KAO)\u003c/a>, a converted C-141 aircraft with a 36-inch mirror that flew missions from 1974 to 1995, and can be seen peacefully enjoying its retirement on a nearby patch of Moffett Field tarmac. The idea within NASA to use a 747-SP as a telescope platform goes back at least to \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Sofia/history/sofia_history.html\">the late 1970's\u003c/a>. Technical challenges, years of delays and cost overruns nearly ended the project more than once. But SOFIA' construction eventually prevailed, test flights began in 2010, and it made its first scientific observations this past year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although all science operations are managed here in the Bay Area within Moffett Field's \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/index.html\">NASA Ames Research Center\u003c/a>, SOFIA's primary home is near Palmdale, California, at \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/home/index.html\">Dryden Flight Research Center\u003c/a>. SOFIA is a collaboration between NASA and the \u003ca href=\"http://www.dlr.de/dlr/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-10002/\">German Aerospace Center, DLR\u003c/a> (Deutches Zentrum fur Luft-und Raumfahrt). The Germans provided the telescope; NASA provided the airplane and crew responsible for the science operations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another operational advantage of flying the instruments on a plane is flexibility. Unlike IR telescopes that we have launched into space, such as the \u003ca href=\"http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/\">Spitzer Space Telescope\u003c/a>, SOFIA comes home every night. It can swap out, repair, or update existing instruments as needed. To take advantage of this flexibility, SOFIA has available a collection of 9 specially-designed primary instruments to attach to the telescope, that each cover a specific range of wavelengths across and around the IR spectrum. Lastly, these instruments need not hew to the stringent weight requirements of their space-based counterparts, which saves money and allows use of instrumentation normally too big to launch on a rocket.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Science/telescope/sci_tele_spectral.html\">\u003cimg alt=\"\" src=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Science/telescope/images/spectral_sofia.gif\" width=\"450\" height=\"330\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The nine \"first-light\" SOFIA instruments plotted on the axes of spectral resolution and observing wavelength. Source: NASA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>After a successful run of several science test flights in 2011, SOFIA is currently in the shop for a major upgrade to its avionics systems. Upon returning later in 2012, the observatory plans to ramp up to 3 missions week by 2014, a schedule it hopes to keep for the next 20 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Erick Young expects that the future of IR astronomy with SOFIA is very bright - or warm, as the case may be. In fact, as the 1st generation of instruments are just being put through their paces, the \u003ca href=\"http://soma.larc.nasa.gov/SOFIA/\">call for the second generation has already begun\u003c/a>. \"The instrumentation that’s available on the infrared is still rapidly evolving, particularly at the very long wavelengths that SOFIA operates at. The technology is still relatively in the infancy. And so one can expect that as the years go by, we’ll have huge increases in our capabilities as the technology improves. And SOFIA will definitely be able to take advantage of that.\"\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"SOFIA is more than a telescope tucked into a re-purposed commercial airliner. It's a complete flying astronomical observation platform which carries a dozen or more astronomers, observers and crew far above the clouds to observe objects and phenomena too cold to be seen in visible light. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1457566257,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":1168},"headData":{"title":"Science on the SPOT: Up all Night with SOFIA, NASA's Flying Observatory | KQED","description":"SOFIA is more than a telescope tucked into a re-purposed commercial airliner. It's a complete flying astronomical observation platform which carries a dozen or more astronomers, observers and crew far above the clouds to observe objects and phenomena too cold to be seen in visible light. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Science on the SPOT: Up all Night with SOFIA, NASA's Flying Observatory","datePublished":"2012-06-27T19:30:56.000Z","dateModified":"2016-03-09T23:30:57.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"40021 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?post_type=videos&p=40021","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/06/27/science-on-the-spot-sofia-observatory/","disqusTitle":"Science on the SPOT: Up all Night with SOFIA, NASA's Flying Observatory","videoEmbed":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sw2uVNbqjDo","path":"/quest/40021/science-on-the-spot-sofia-observatory","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Seen from the exterior with its rear canopy closed, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/SOFIA/\">Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)\u003c/a> aircraft looks much like a typical jumbo jet you might see at any airport-- perhaps even reminiscent of another well-known, heavily modified Boeing 747, Air Force One. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"SOFIA has a lot of characteristics that are very similar to a normal passenger airplane,\" explains Erick Young, Director of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/index.html\">SOFIA Science Center\u003c/a> at NASA/Ames Research Center in Mountain View, CA. \"Except for the fact that we’ve completely gutted the insides, and there’s a hole in the side of the airplane the size of a garage door, and there’s a 17-ton telescope mounted in the back. But other than that it’s pretty much like a regular airplane.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It may appear modest from the outside, but SOFIA is more than a telescope tucked into a re-purposed commercial airliner. Obscured from view is a complete flying astronomical observation platform centered around a 2.7 meter-wide \u003ca href=\"http://science.howstuffworks.com/telescope3.htm\">reflecting telescope\u003c/a>, which carries a dozen or more astronomers, observers and crew \u003ca href=\"http://airs.jpl.nasa.gov/maps/satellite_feed/atmosphere_layers/\">above the clouds\u003c/a> to observe objects and phenomena too cold to be seen in visible light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40032\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 315px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/WS301_SOFIA_young.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/06/WS301_SOFIA_young.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"WS301_SOFIA_young\" width=\"315\" height=\"177\" class=\"size-full wp-image-40032\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Erick Young is the Director of the SOFIA Science Center, and is responsible for the airplane crew and science operations of the observatory. Credit: NASA / Tom Tschida.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\"The appearance of things that we can see in visible light is primarily because things are hot enough to give off light at visible light wavelengths,\" says Young. \" If you get things too cold, then things look redder and redder and eventually they’re so red that the human eye can’t see them anymore. And then what we are actually sensing is a different kind of light and it’s called infrared. And that’s basically the heat radiation that’s coming from objects. And so what we can look at are not things that are thousands of degrees hot, but things that are hundreds or tens of degrees above absolute zero. And it turns out that there’s a lot of material in the universe- the dust, planets like the Earth, clouds in space. They’re all too cold to normally emit in visible light, but by looking in the infrared, we’re able to sense them, detect them, and measure their properties.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our most familiar instrument for observing and measuring the electromagnetic radiation emitted by objects, the human eye, senses a narrow range of energy wavelengths. These are waves with wavelengths of 380 nanometers (violet) to about 740 nanometers (red). Although astronomy has its origin in observing the universe in this part of the spectrum, there are also telescopes and instruments that measure incredibly short, energetic wavelengths such as Gamma rays and X-rays, as well as extremely long wavelengths such as radio waves. Infrared or \"IR\" astronomers study that expansive swath of wavelengths just below the visible range, but still above the radio end of the spectrum. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">\u003cimg alt=\"\" src=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/ems_length_final.gif\" class=\"aligncenter\" width=\"619\" height=\"147\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003csmall>Source: \u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">NASA\u003c/a>\u003c/small>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But why go through the trouble of \u003ca href=\"http://ericfdiaz.wordpress.com/why-does-infrared-astronomy-matters/\">observing objects in the IR spectrum\u003c/a> from the stratosphere, 12+ kilometers above the surface of the earth? There are several major infrared telescopes operating both on the ground and in space: at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/\">Mauna Kea Observatories\u003c/a> in Hawaii, or \u003ca href=\"http://www.noao.edu/kpno/\">Kitt Peak National Observatory\u003c/a> in Arizona, for example.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We put a telescope on the airplane because there are parts of the spectrum which are completely blocked and completely opaque in the Earth’s atmosphere. This was primarily in the infrared part of the spectrum,\" explains Young. \"The main thing that blocks the infrared light from reaching the ground is water vapor in the Earth’s atmosphere. And if we want to observe many of these wavelengths, we have to get to some place where there’s no water vapor and SOFIA will fly above more than 99% of the water vapor in the atmosphere.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Flying telescopes may not be commonplace, but are hardly a new idea. SOFIA is merely the latest and largest in a \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Edu/docs/97-Whiting_AeroHistory.pdf\">line of airborne observatories\u003c/a> going back to the 1920's, when eclipse chasers first carried a modest instrument aboard a 2-seater biplane. SOFIA's most recent ancestor is the the \u003ca href=\"http://science.nasa.gov/missions/kao/\">Kuiper Airborne observatory (KAO)\u003c/a>, a converted C-141 aircraft with a 36-inch mirror that flew missions from 1974 to 1995, and can be seen peacefully enjoying its retirement on a nearby patch of Moffett Field tarmac. The idea within NASA to use a 747-SP as a telescope platform goes back at least to \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Sofia/history/sofia_history.html\">the late 1970's\u003c/a>. Technical challenges, years of delays and cost overruns nearly ended the project more than once. But SOFIA' construction eventually prevailed, test flights began in 2010, and it made its first scientific observations this past year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although all science operations are managed here in the Bay Area within Moffett Field's \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/index.html\">NASA Ames Research Center\u003c/a>, SOFIA's primary home is near Palmdale, California, at \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/home/index.html\">Dryden Flight Research Center\u003c/a>. SOFIA is a collaboration between NASA and the \u003ca href=\"http://www.dlr.de/dlr/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-10002/\">German Aerospace Center, DLR\u003c/a> (Deutches Zentrum fur Luft-und Raumfahrt). The Germans provided the telescope; NASA provided the airplane and crew responsible for the science operations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another operational advantage of flying the instruments on a plane is flexibility. Unlike IR telescopes that we have launched into space, such as the \u003ca href=\"http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/\">Spitzer Space Telescope\u003c/a>, SOFIA comes home every night. It can swap out, repair, or update existing instruments as needed. To take advantage of this flexibility, SOFIA has available a collection of 9 specially-designed primary instruments to attach to the telescope, that each cover a specific range of wavelengths across and around the IR spectrum. Lastly, these instruments need not hew to the stringent weight requirements of their space-based counterparts, which saves money and allows use of instrumentation normally too big to launch on a rocket.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Science/telescope/sci_tele_spectral.html\">\u003cimg alt=\"\" src=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Science/telescope/images/spectral_sofia.gif\" width=\"450\" height=\"330\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The nine \"first-light\" SOFIA instruments plotted on the axes of spectral resolution and observing wavelength. Source: NASA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>After a successful run of several science test flights in 2011, SOFIA is currently in the shop for a major upgrade to its avionics systems. Upon returning later in 2012, the observatory plans to ramp up to 3 missions week by 2014, a schedule it hopes to keep for the next 20 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Erick Young expects that the future of IR astronomy with SOFIA is very bright - or warm, as the case may be. In fact, as the 1st generation of instruments are just being put through their paces, the \u003ca href=\"http://soma.larc.nasa.gov/SOFIA/\">call for the second generation has already begun\u003c/a>. \"The instrumentation that’s available on the infrared is still rapidly evolving, particularly at the very long wavelengths that SOFIA operates at. The technology is still relatively in the infancy. And so one can expect that as the years go by, we’ll have huge increases in our capabilities as the technology improves. And SOFIA will definitely be able to take advantage of that.\"\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/40021/science-on-the-spot-sofia-observatory","authors":["6166","6219"],"series":["quest_3296"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_16","quest_3422","quest_3233"],"tags":["quest_11234","quest_13192","quest_246","quest_3577","quest_1469","quest_3351","quest_1657","quest_30","quest_1918","quest_2033","quest_2141","quest_2349","quest_13","quest_2739","quest_2780","quest_2808","quest_2891","quest_3034","quest_3071"],"featImg":"quest_40024","label":"quest_3296"},"quest_26549":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_26549","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"26549","score":null,"sort":[1329498023000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"up-all-night-on-nasas-flying-telescope","title":"Up All Night on NASA's Flying Telescope","publishDate":1329498023,"format":"audio","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/02/2012-02-20-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26551\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"NASA-Sofia\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-26551\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, also known as SOFIA. (Photo: NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The new \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/\">SOFIA observatory\u003c/a> isn't your average NASA project. Engineers took a 30-year old 747 airplane, cut a hole in the side and installed a 17-ton telescope. Most telescopes are either on the ground or somewhere in orbit, but SOFIA falls somewhere in the middle, flying around at about 40,000 feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got the chance to hitch a ride on one of its recent research flights as the plane left Moffett Field at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/index.html\">NASA Ames Research Center\u003c/a>. It's definitely not the kind of flight where you get a bag of peanuts and movie. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers take advantage of the nighttime sky, so we left at dusk for 10-hour tour flying zigzags across the Pacific Ocean. Each leg of the journey is carefully calculated so the telescope can pinpoint a far away star. The plane interior is packed with computers and equipment. It also lacks insulation since much of it was removed to install the telescope, so it's both cold and loud inside. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At four in the morning, the astronomers are still hard at work. If they're as tired as I am, they certainly aren't showing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"For me, this is very exciting,\" says Ian McLean, a professor at the University of California-Los Angeles. He usually works on the ground. \"All my career has been ground-based astronomy. So, it's only my second flight.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says there's a good reason to do astronomy in the stratosphere. The atmosphere is thinner, which means it's easier for the telescope to see the stars. \"It's almost as good as space,\" says McLean. \"Not quite, but almost.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And unlike the \u003ca href=\"http://hubblesite.org/\">Hubble Space Telescope\u003c/a>, this telescope lands everyday, which means the scientists can update and fix the equipment. \"By the time you get a mission into orbit, the technology you're using is relatively old. Here we can stay state of the art all the time,\" says McLean. NASA began developing SOFIA in 1997 and almost cancelled the project at one point. It flew its first science mission in November 2010 and now costs about $80 million a year to operate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Searching for a \"Holy Grail\"\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says the SOFIA telescope could show astronomers something that's considered a Holy Grail in their field: seeing a star being born. It happens in huge, dusty clouds – stellar nurseries, as Mclean calls them. \"The cloud is huge, light years across and it's gradually contracting to form a whole nursery of stars.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26560\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679\" width=\"320\" height=\"207\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26560\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Inside NASA's SOFIA Observatory, somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But there's a problem. Astronomers can't see what's happening inside the clouds because, once again, they're made of dust and it's hard to see through.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We don't mean dust bunnies, but we mean little, tiny little grains of solid material. Doesn't matter how big a telescope you have, you can't see inside it,\" McLean says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why SOFIA looks at a special kind of light called \u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">infrared light\u003c/a>. If you look through a telescope on the ground, you're looking at the visible light from space – the light our eyes can see. Infrared light is invisible to us, but it penetrates space dust, which means the telescope can see through the dust too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You get to see what you can't see with your eye. It's like a window has been opened,\" says McLean. They're looking for exactly how stellar nurseries give birth to young stars. McLean says catching a star as it's forming can reveal clues about how own solar system formed. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But star birth isn't the only thing these researchers want to see. They're also looking at the way stars die.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Star on the Way Out\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the plane makes as sharp right turn, the telescope focuses on an object called NGC 7027. It's a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula\">planetary nebula\u003c/a> – also known as a dying star. McLean and his team are capturing an infrared image of the nebula, which is about 3,000 light years away. They can also see what it's made of.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It has a distinctive shape. It's oval. There's a hole in the middle and that's because it literally is a shell of gas that came off the star,\" says McLean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>7027 is dying because the star has run out of fuel – the same fate that our sun will face in about five billion years. As it dies, the star casts off its outer layers, shedding huge amounts of material to form a cloud around it. But it's not entirely a sad story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It won't be wasted,\" says McLean. \"The material that was thrown off by that star in its dying phase, somewhere, millions, perhaps billions of years from now, will find its way into a new star and the planets that form around it.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From dead stars come new stars – and planets like our own. The oxygen and nitrogen in our bodies were once formed inside a star. \"The cosmos is within us,\" as astronomer \u003ca href=\"http://www.carlsagan.com/\">Carl Sagan\u003c/a> once said. \"We're made of star stuff.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As sky begins to lighten, we descend towards the Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility in the Mojave Desert, where the plane is based. The SOFIA telescope is now undergoing service upgrades and then will return to the skies three times a week. Astronomers from around the world are lining up to get on board.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe src=\"http://kqed03.streamguys.us/anon.kqed/slideshow/sofia_slideshow/_files/iframe.html?noscale=640x393\" width=\"640\" height=\"393\" scrolling=\"no\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The Obama Administration’s new budget for NASA was released last week, and calls for cuts to many space programs. But one California-based project is likely to get more money. The SOFIA flying observatory, a telescope mounted on an airplane, is considered more nimble and cost-effective than other projects. Reporter Lauren Sommer recently caught a ride as it flew over the Pacific Ocean.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1329840247,"stats":{"hasAudio":true,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":true,"iframeSrcs":["http://kqed03.streamguys.us/anon.kqed/slideshow/sofia_slideshow/_files/iframe.html"],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":24,"wordCount":947},"headData":{"title":"Up All Night on NASA's Flying Telescope | KQED","description":"","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Up All Night on NASA's Flying Telescope","datePublished":"2012-02-17T17:00:23.000Z","dateModified":"2012-02-21T16:04:07.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"26549 http://science.kqed.org/quest/audio/up-all-night-on-nasas-flying-telescope/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/17/up-all-night-on-nasas-flying-telescope/","disqusTitle":"Up All Night on NASA's Flying Telescope","path":"/quest/26549/up-all-night-on-nasas-flying-telescope","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/02/2012-02-20-quest.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/02/2012-02-20-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26551\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"NASA-Sofia\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-26551\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, also known as SOFIA. (Photo: NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The new \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/\">SOFIA observatory\u003c/a> isn't your average NASA project. Engineers took a 30-year old 747 airplane, cut a hole in the side and installed a 17-ton telescope. Most telescopes are either on the ground or somewhere in orbit, but SOFIA falls somewhere in the middle, flying around at about 40,000 feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got the chance to hitch a ride on one of its recent research flights as the plane left Moffett Field at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/index.html\">NASA Ames Research Center\u003c/a>. It's definitely not the kind of flight where you get a bag of peanuts and movie. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers take advantage of the nighttime sky, so we left at dusk for 10-hour tour flying zigzags across the Pacific Ocean. Each leg of the journey is carefully calculated so the telescope can pinpoint a far away star. The plane interior is packed with computers and equipment. It also lacks insulation since much of it was removed to install the telescope, so it's both cold and loud inside. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At four in the morning, the astronomers are still hard at work. If they're as tired as I am, they certainly aren't showing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"For me, this is very exciting,\" says Ian McLean, a professor at the University of California-Los Angeles. He usually works on the ground. \"All my career has been ground-based astronomy. So, it's only my second flight.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says there's a good reason to do astronomy in the stratosphere. The atmosphere is thinner, which means it's easier for the telescope to see the stars. \"It's almost as good as space,\" says McLean. \"Not quite, but almost.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And unlike the \u003ca href=\"http://hubblesite.org/\">Hubble Space Telescope\u003c/a>, this telescope lands everyday, which means the scientists can update and fix the equipment. \"By the time you get a mission into orbit, the technology you're using is relatively old. Here we can stay state of the art all the time,\" says McLean. NASA began developing SOFIA in 1997 and almost cancelled the project at one point. It flew its first science mission in November 2010 and now costs about $80 million a year to operate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Searching for a \"Holy Grail\"\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says the SOFIA telescope could show astronomers something that's considered a Holy Grail in their field: seeing a star being born. It happens in huge, dusty clouds – stellar nurseries, as Mclean calls them. \"The cloud is huge, light years across and it's gradually contracting to form a whole nursery of stars.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26560\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679\" width=\"320\" height=\"207\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26560\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Inside NASA's SOFIA Observatory, somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But there's a problem. Astronomers can't see what's happening inside the clouds because, once again, they're made of dust and it's hard to see through.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We don't mean dust bunnies, but we mean little, tiny little grains of solid material. Doesn't matter how big a telescope you have, you can't see inside it,\" McLean says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why SOFIA looks at a special kind of light called \u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">infrared light\u003c/a>. If you look through a telescope on the ground, you're looking at the visible light from space – the light our eyes can see. Infrared light is invisible to us, but it penetrates space dust, which means the telescope can see through the dust too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You get to see what you can't see with your eye. It's like a window has been opened,\" says McLean. They're looking for exactly how stellar nurseries give birth to young stars. McLean says catching a star as it's forming can reveal clues about how own solar system formed. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But star birth isn't the only thing these researchers want to see. They're also looking at the way stars die.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Star on the Way Out\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the plane makes as sharp right turn, the telescope focuses on an object called NGC 7027. It's a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula\">planetary nebula\u003c/a> – also known as a dying star. McLean and his team are capturing an infrared image of the nebula, which is about 3,000 light years away. They can also see what it's made of.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It has a distinctive shape. It's oval. There's a hole in the middle and that's because it literally is a shell of gas that came off the star,\" says McLean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>7027 is dying because the star has run out of fuel – the same fate that our sun will face in about five billion years. As it dies, the star casts off its outer layers, shedding huge amounts of material to form a cloud around it. But it's not entirely a sad story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It won't be wasted,\" says McLean. \"The material that was thrown off by that star in its dying phase, somewhere, millions, perhaps billions of years from now, will find its way into a new star and the planets that form around it.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From dead stars come new stars – and planets like our own. The oxygen and nitrogen in our bodies were once formed inside a star. \"The cosmos is within us,\" as astronomer \u003ca href=\"http://www.carlsagan.com/\">Carl Sagan\u003c/a> once said. \"We're made of star stuff.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As sky begins to lighten, we descend towards the Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility in the Mojave Desert, where the plane is based. The SOFIA telescope is now undergoing service upgrades and then will return to the skies three times a week. Astronomers from around the world are lining up to get on board.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe src=\"http://kqed03.streamguys.us/anon.kqed/slideshow/sofia_slideshow/_files/iframe.html?noscale=640x393\" width=\"640\" height=\"393\" scrolling=\"no\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/26549/up-all-night-on-nasas-flying-telescope","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_8"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_246","quest_252","quest_3577","quest_1469","quest_1657","quest_1918","quest_13203","quest_2033","quest_13202","quest_2739","quest_2780","quest_2808","quest_2891","quest_3034"],"featImg":"quest_26551","label":"quest"},"quest_3334":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_3334","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"3334","score":null,"sort":[1250366258000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"mars-rock-talks-opportunity-listens","title":"Mars Rock Talks, Opportunity Listens","publishDate":1250366258,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2009/08/090811-block-island-02.jpg\">\u003cem>Block Island—a half-ton meteorite found on Mars by NASA's \u003cbr>Opportunity rover.Image credit, NASA/MER Opportunity\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Ever been driving down a lonely desert highway when you suddenly glimpse something in the corner of your eye that makes you think, \"What was that?!\" You brake, tires screech, you spin the wheel and make a wild U-turn, cutting into the shoulder and leaving a rooster-tail of dust as you floor the gas to get back to what you thought you saw….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, dramatic desert car scene ended. That would be the Hollywood movie version of what NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity did recently, on the lonely desert highway that it's scouting on Mars. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On its determined long trek from \u003ca href=\"http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/TRA_000873_1780\">Victoria Crater\u003c/a> to the larger \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/23/science/space/23rover.html\">Endeavour Crater\u003c/a> (a 12-mile span that Opportunity has completed about one fifth of over the past year), the rover passed by an X-box-sized block of iron that presented the appearance of a meteorite. It snapped a picture in passing, which was eventually transmitted to Earth and examined. By this time, Opportunity had already traveled about 180 meters beyond the block (dubbed \"Block Island\"). This is when the rover was commanded to backtrack all the way to the find (though it's doubtful it worked up a rooster tail). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Upon returning to Block Island—quite obviously an iron-nickel meteorite by appearance alone, but whose composition was confirmed by the rover's alpha particle X-ray spectrometer instrument—Opportunity took more pictures, including extreme close-ups with its microscope camera, which revealed surface patterns similar to those found on Earth iron-nickel meteorites that have been exposed to long-term weathering by wind and sand. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As interesting as stumbling upon a half-ton meteorite on the dusty plains of Mars' Meridiani Planum is, what this particular chunk of weathered iron is telling scientists \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090811-mars-meteorite-opportunity.html\">sparks the imagination\u003c/a>. In a nutshell, given the thinness of Mars' current atmosphere, scientists wouldn't expect a meteorite of this size to survive impact intact, at the speed it would be going. One of the possible explanations for Block Island's rock-houndable state is that when it fell to Mars, Mars' atmosphere was substantially thicker than it is now. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Further examination of the meteorite may reveal clues as to how long ago it fell through Martian skies. Evidence that Mars' atmosphere was warmer and thicker in the distant past, as well as the possibility that there was liquid water on the surface, has been mounting over the years. The age of this meteorite-fall could shed more light on the history of Mars' environment. If it fell billions of years ago, Block Island would weigh in as more evidence to support our current suspicions. If, however, we find that it fell more recently, then this could indicate that the atmosphere was more substantial later in Mars' history than we thought. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine, if you will, a Mars that looks even more Earthlike than it does now: seas of water with waves rolling into shorelines, great clouds sending downpours of rain and snow onto mountains and plains, streams and rivers snaking through the landscape. Maybe, maybe, even some form of life? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All that from a rock? Yes, rocks talk, if we listen. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity finds a meteorite on Mars that may shed more light on the history of Mars' atmosphere.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371078089,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":555},"headData":{"title":"Mars Rock Talks, Opportunity Listens | KQED","description":"Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity finds a meteorite on Mars that may shed more light on the history of Mars' atmosphere.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Mars Rock Talks, Opportunity Listens","datePublished":"2009-08-15T19:57:38.000Z","dateModified":"2013-06-12T23:01:29.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"3334 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=3334","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/08/15/mars-rock-talks-opportunity-listens/","disqusTitle":"Mars Rock Talks, Opportunity Listens","path":"/quest/3334/mars-rock-talks-opportunity-listens","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2009/08/090811-block-island-02.jpg\">\u003cem>Block Island—a half-ton meteorite found on Mars by NASA's \u003cbr>Opportunity rover.Image credit, NASA/MER Opportunity\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Ever been driving down a lonely desert highway when you suddenly glimpse something in the corner of your eye that makes you think, \"What was that?!\" You brake, tires screech, you spin the wheel and make a wild U-turn, cutting into the shoulder and leaving a rooster-tail of dust as you floor the gas to get back to what you thought you saw….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, dramatic desert car scene ended. That would be the Hollywood movie version of what NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity did recently, on the lonely desert highway that it's scouting on Mars. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On its determined long trek from \u003ca href=\"http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/TRA_000873_1780\">Victoria Crater\u003c/a> to the larger \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/23/science/space/23rover.html\">Endeavour Crater\u003c/a> (a 12-mile span that Opportunity has completed about one fifth of over the past year), the rover passed by an X-box-sized block of iron that presented the appearance of a meteorite. It snapped a picture in passing, which was eventually transmitted to Earth and examined. By this time, Opportunity had already traveled about 180 meters beyond the block (dubbed \"Block Island\"). This is when the rover was commanded to backtrack all the way to the find (though it's doubtful it worked up a rooster tail). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Upon returning to Block Island—quite obviously an iron-nickel meteorite by appearance alone, but whose composition was confirmed by the rover's alpha particle X-ray spectrometer instrument—Opportunity took more pictures, including extreme close-ups with its microscope camera, which revealed surface patterns similar to those found on Earth iron-nickel meteorites that have been exposed to long-term weathering by wind and sand. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As interesting as stumbling upon a half-ton meteorite on the dusty plains of Mars' Meridiani Planum is, what this particular chunk of weathered iron is telling scientists \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090811-mars-meteorite-opportunity.html\">sparks the imagination\u003c/a>. In a nutshell, given the thinness of Mars' current atmosphere, scientists wouldn't expect a meteorite of this size to survive impact intact, at the speed it would be going. One of the possible explanations for Block Island's rock-houndable state is that when it fell to Mars, Mars' atmosphere was substantially thicker than it is now. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Further examination of the meteorite may reveal clues as to how long ago it fell through Martian skies. Evidence that Mars' atmosphere was warmer and thicker in the distant past, as well as the possibility that there was liquid water on the surface, has been mounting over the years. The age of this meteorite-fall could shed more light on the history of Mars' environment. If it fell billions of years ago, Block Island would weigh in as more evidence to support our current suspicions. If, however, we find that it fell more recently, then this could indicate that the atmosphere was more substantial later in Mars' history than we thought. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine, if you will, a Mars that looks even more Earthlike than it does now: seas of water with waves rolling into shorelines, great clouds sending downpours of rain and snow onto mountains and plains, streams and rivers snaking through the landscape. Maybe, maybe, even some form of life? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All that from a rock? Yes, rocks talk, if we listen. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/3334/mars-rock-talks-opportunity-listens","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_11"],"tags":["quest_246","quest_1751","quest_1800","quest_1918","quest_2457"],"label":"quest"},"quest_984":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_984","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"984","score":null,"sort":[1229636856000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"engineering-the-planet","title":"Engineering the Planet","publishDate":1229636856,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/12/blog_clouds.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>On the surface, \u003ca href=\"http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/earth/4290084.html\" target=\"_blank\">geoengineering\u003c/a> almost seems like science fiction. Could humans engineer a way to compensate for global warming by changing dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere? But it's one of the ideas being discussing at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.agu.org/\" target=\"_blank\">American Geophysical Union\u003c/a> conference in San Francisco. Each year, thousands of scientists descend on downtown San Francisco to hold a week of meetings and discussions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's how the idea would work: Using planes or other high-altitude transport, we'd disburse millions of tons of sulfur dioxide (or hydrogen sulfide) into the stratosphere, 13 miles above the Earth. Those gases would create tiny particles, which would reflect sunlight. This process already goes on in the stratosphere - about a third of the energy from the sun is reflected back into space thanks to this dynamic. But by adding more reflecting particles, scientists think it might be possible to cool the planet - and compensate for human-induced warming.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No one has tried this idea yet - but it's something scientists have already observed -- through volcanoes. In 1991, \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/\" target=\"_blank\">Mount Pinatubo erupted\u003c/a> in the Philippines, spewing 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. As a result, global temperatures temporarily dropped about one degree Fahrenheit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That doesn't necessarily mean a scheme like this would work. As \u003ca href=\"http://www.atmos.ucla.edu/~turco/\" target=\"_blank\">UCLA Scientist Richard Turco\u003c/a> said, it's not easy to predict how the particles would react and disburse. \"If the particles are too large, that would actually create a warming effect, a greenhouse warming. Small particles are not useful because they don't reflect much radiation.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This plan isn't just a one time deal. As Turco continued, \"we would need a huge monitoring system and can't afford to make any mistakes. Once you start this process, you have to maintain it for two to three centuries.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And then there's the \"get out of jail free\" aspect. If the focus of climate change policy becomes geoengineering, what happens to simply cutting emissions? As Professor Alan Robock of Rutgers University acknowledged, the costs and technology of geoengineering are uncertain -- and it wouldn't curb other climate change impacts, like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/acidic-seas\" target=\"_blank\">ocean acidification\u003c/a>. \"We have to focus on mitigation and keep this in our back pocket for emergencies.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Professor David Keith of the University of Calagry, \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/20/opinion/20homerdixon.html\" target=\"_blank\">it's worth studying geoengineering\u003c/a> -- just in case. Our greenhouse gas emissions will continue to grow. \"We're not going to stop today, and even if we stopped today, there's enormous inertia,\" Keith said. In the event that climate change becomes catastrophic, Keith says we may need a last resort. \"Whether you like or don't like this, it can be done quickly.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more on what's new at the AGU, check out KQED's \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/climatewatch/2008/12/16/ca-is-extra-vulnerable-to-climate-change/\" target=\"_blank\">Climate Watch blog\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.783267 -122.402726\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"On the surface, geoengineering almost seems like science fiction. Could humans engineer ways to compensate for global warming by changing dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere?","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371079485,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":466},"headData":{"title":"Engineering the Planet | KQED","description":"On the surface, geoengineering almost seems like science fiction. Could humans engineer ways to compensate for global warming by changing dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere?","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Engineering the Planet","datePublished":"2008-12-18T21:47:36.000Z","dateModified":"2013-06-12T23:24:45.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"984 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=984","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/12/18/engineering-the-planet/","disqusTitle":"Engineering the Planet","path":"/quest/984/engineering-the-planet","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/12/blog_clouds.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>On the surface, \u003ca href=\"http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/earth/4290084.html\" target=\"_blank\">geoengineering\u003c/a> almost seems like science fiction. Could humans engineer a way to compensate for global warming by changing dynamics in the Earth's atmosphere? But it's one of the ideas being discussing at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.agu.org/\" target=\"_blank\">American Geophysical Union\u003c/a> conference in San Francisco. Each year, thousands of scientists descend on downtown San Francisco to hold a week of meetings and discussions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's how the idea would work: Using planes or other high-altitude transport, we'd disburse millions of tons of sulfur dioxide (or hydrogen sulfide) into the stratosphere, 13 miles above the Earth. Those gases would create tiny particles, which would reflect sunlight. This process already goes on in the stratosphere - about a third of the energy from the sun is reflected back into space thanks to this dynamic. But by adding more reflecting particles, scientists think it might be possible to cool the planet - and compensate for human-induced warming.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No one has tried this idea yet - but it's something scientists have already observed -- through volcanoes. In 1991, \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/\" target=\"_blank\">Mount Pinatubo erupted\u003c/a> in the Philippines, spewing 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. As a result, global temperatures temporarily dropped about one degree Fahrenheit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That doesn't necessarily mean a scheme like this would work. As \u003ca href=\"http://www.atmos.ucla.edu/~turco/\" target=\"_blank\">UCLA Scientist Richard Turco\u003c/a> said, it's not easy to predict how the particles would react and disburse. \"If the particles are too large, that would actually create a warming effect, a greenhouse warming. Small particles are not useful because they don't reflect much radiation.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This plan isn't just a one time deal. As Turco continued, \"we would need a huge monitoring system and can't afford to make any mistakes. Once you start this process, you have to maintain it for two to three centuries.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And then there's the \"get out of jail free\" aspect. If the focus of climate change policy becomes geoengineering, what happens to simply cutting emissions? As Professor Alan Robock of Rutgers University acknowledged, the costs and technology of geoengineering are uncertain -- and it wouldn't curb other climate change impacts, like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/acidic-seas\" target=\"_blank\">ocean acidification\u003c/a>. \"We have to focus on mitigation and keep this in our back pocket for emergencies.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Professor David Keith of the University of Calagry, \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/20/opinion/20homerdixon.html\" target=\"_blank\">it's worth studying geoengineering\u003c/a> -- just in case. Our greenhouse gas emissions will continue to grow. \"We're not going to stop today, and even if we stopped today, there's enormous inertia,\" Keith said. In the event that climate change becomes catastrophic, Keith says we may need a last resort. \"Whether you like or don't like this, it can be done quickly.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more on what's new at the AGU, check out KQED's \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/climatewatch/2008/12/16/ca-is-extra-vulnerable-to-climate-change/\" target=\"_blank\">Climate Watch blog\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.783267 -122.402726\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/984/engineering-the-planet","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_6","quest_9"],"tags":["quest_246","quest_621","quest_1202","quest_1224","quest_1586"],"label":"quest"},"quest_689":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_689","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"689","score":null,"sort":[1215709685000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"weather-mystery-warm-rain-and-icy-hail","title":"Weather Mystery: Warm Rain and Icy Hail?","publishDate":1215709685,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/07/hail-storm1.jpg\">\u003c/span>For this past patriotic weekend, I was on the other side of the coast. Namely, driving from Washington DC into the rural wilderness of Virginia for a get away. It was not the man-made fireworks that grabbed my attention but the activity of thunderclouds. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I was reading out loud as we drove down I-64 towards an ever darkening sky. My friend, Brad shushed me at one point to concentrate on driving. I looked up to see why and was stunned. A sheet of water and staccato pulses of hail and lightning were all I could see. It reminded me of the intensity of being caught in blizzard conditions while driving toward Tahoe in Northern California. But here we were, in Virginia on a very warm and balmy day and the sky had literally opened up with water. What's more, hail was falling. I turned to Brad and asked how could hail exist in such warm conditions? He was stumped and I was fascinated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With a little detective work, I came up with an answer to the dilemma. Hail is only produced in \u003cem>cumulonimbi\u003c/em> clouds (thunderclouds). They usually only occur at the front of a storm system which was what we experienced. The hail hit in the first ten minutes and then was followed by heavy rain. However, the rain was warm to the touch unlike the frozen water making up the hailstones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fire in the nearby \u003ca href=\"http://www.fws.gov/northeast/greatdismalswamp/\">Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge\u003c/a> and incredibly hot and humid conditions in Virginia created ideal conditions for hail. Hail is created inside a thunderstorm that has strong updrafts of warm air and downdrafts of cold air. A water droplet with an apex point is picked up by the updrafts and travels into the cooler air and freezes. The apex point known as the condensation nuclei in the water droplet was probably dust from the fire or nearby salt water during this particular hailstorm. (Both Brad and I experienced dry and stinging eyes after going into one of the storms later that weekend, much like the stinging of salt water.) Layers of ice are then accumulated around this nuclei as the droplet goes through a cycle of being caught in an updraft and then carried beyond the freezing level of the atmosphere and then thawing partially in entering the warmer air on a downdraft. This cycle repeats itself creating increasing layers of ice. Then as some point this frozen water droplet with several irregular layers falls to the ground as hail. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of the largest hailstones have been recorded during summer storms in humid climates because the warm updrafts and cold downdrafts along with high surface heat create an optimal cycle for large hail. Smaller hailstones can be coupled more easily with larger hailstones in these conditions. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZr8jXo1Uso\">Video of Large Hailstones\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the course of the weekend, we had three more thunderstorms (one of which broke a car back window nearby) and we kept an eye on a thundercloud that looked like it wanted to become a tornado. I came home very thankful for the fog! NOAA the National and Atmospheric Administration has a National Weather Service. At \u003ca href=\"http://www.weather.gov/\">http://www.weather.gov/\u003c/a> anyone can check weather reports in any given area. To issue proper warnings and forecasts regarding hail, the National Weather Service uses a network of NEXRAD doppler radars to detect it. Hail size and probability can be determined from radar data by a computer by different algorithms and compared to the local atmospheric data to determine the threat level. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It seems the storms have not cleared yet throughout the area in Virginia we visited-- severe thunderstorm warnings are still posted on NOAA. So the fireworks might have passed but thunderclouds are still lighting up the sky.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7697 -122.466\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":null,"status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1215709685,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":634},"headData":{"title":"Weather Mystery: Warm Rain and Icy Hail? | KQED","description":"For this past patriotic weekend, I was on the other side of the coast. Namely, driving from Washington DC into the rural wilderness of Virginia for a get away. It was not the man-made fireworks that grabbed my attention but the activity of thunderclouds. I was reading out loud as we drove down I-64 towards","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Weather Mystery: Warm Rain and Icy Hail?","datePublished":"2008-07-10T17:08:05.000Z","dateModified":"2008-07-10T17:08:05.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"689 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=689","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/07/10/weather-mystery-warm-rain-and-icy-hail/","disqusTitle":"Weather Mystery: Warm Rain and Icy Hail?","path":"/quest/689/weather-mystery-warm-rain-and-icy-hail","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/07/hail-storm1.jpg\">\u003c/span>For this past patriotic weekend, I was on the other side of the coast. Namely, driving from Washington DC into the rural wilderness of Virginia for a get away. It was not the man-made fireworks that grabbed my attention but the activity of thunderclouds. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I was reading out loud as we drove down I-64 towards an ever darkening sky. My friend, Brad shushed me at one point to concentrate on driving. I looked up to see why and was stunned. A sheet of water and staccato pulses of hail and lightning were all I could see. It reminded me of the intensity of being caught in blizzard conditions while driving toward Tahoe in Northern California. But here we were, in Virginia on a very warm and balmy day and the sky had literally opened up with water. What's more, hail was falling. I turned to Brad and asked how could hail exist in such warm conditions? He was stumped and I was fascinated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With a little detective work, I came up with an answer to the dilemma. Hail is only produced in \u003cem>cumulonimbi\u003c/em> clouds (thunderclouds). They usually only occur at the front of a storm system which was what we experienced. The hail hit in the first ten minutes and then was followed by heavy rain. However, the rain was warm to the touch unlike the frozen water making up the hailstones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fire in the nearby \u003ca href=\"http://www.fws.gov/northeast/greatdismalswamp/\">Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge\u003c/a> and incredibly hot and humid conditions in Virginia created ideal conditions for hail. Hail is created inside a thunderstorm that has strong updrafts of warm air and downdrafts of cold air. A water droplet with an apex point is picked up by the updrafts and travels into the cooler air and freezes. The apex point known as the condensation nuclei in the water droplet was probably dust from the fire or nearby salt water during this particular hailstorm. (Both Brad and I experienced dry and stinging eyes after going into one of the storms later that weekend, much like the stinging of salt water.) Layers of ice are then accumulated around this nuclei as the droplet goes through a cycle of being caught in an updraft and then carried beyond the freezing level of the atmosphere and then thawing partially in entering the warmer air on a downdraft. This cycle repeats itself creating increasing layers of ice. Then as some point this frozen water droplet with several irregular layers falls to the ground as hail. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of the largest hailstones have been recorded during summer storms in humid climates because the warm updrafts and cold downdrafts along with high surface heat create an optimal cycle for large hail. Smaller hailstones can be coupled more easily with larger hailstones in these conditions. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZr8jXo1Uso\">Video of Large Hailstones\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the course of the weekend, we had three more thunderstorms (one of which broke a car back window nearby) and we kept an eye on a thundercloud that looked like it wanted to become a tornado. I came home very thankful for the fog! NOAA the National and Atmospheric Administration has a National Weather Service. At \u003ca href=\"http://www.weather.gov/\">http://www.weather.gov/\u003c/a> anyone can check weather reports in any given area. To issue proper warnings and forecasts regarding hail, the National Weather Service uses a network of NEXRAD doppler radars to detect it. Hail size and probability can be determined from radar data by a computer by different algorithms and compared to the local atmospheric data to determine the threat level. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It seems the storms have not cleared yet throughout the area in Virginia we visited-- severe thunderstorm warnings are still posted on NOAA. So the fireworks might have passed but thunderclouds are still lighting up the sky.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7697 -122.466\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/689/weather-mystery-warm-rain-and-icy-hail","authors":["10173"],"tags":["quest_246","quest_431","quest_1302","quest_1438","quest_3351","quest_1991","quest_2349","quest_13","quest_2363","quest_2651","quest_2934","quest_3108","quest_19"],"label":"quest"},"quest_493":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_493","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"493","score":null,"sort":[1206732414000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"living-in-the-suns-atmosphere","title":"Living in the Sun's Atmosphere","publishDate":1206732414,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/03/solarinteraction.jpg\">\u003cem>Illustration of a blast of solar wind impacting\u003cbr>\nEarth's protective magnetic field. Credit: NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Breathe in, exhale. Feel the air in your mouth, windpipe, and lungs. That's a sample of Earth's atmosphere: the thin layer of gases enveloping our planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did you know that the \u003ca href=\"http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/heliosph.html\">Sun also has an atmosphere\u003c/a>, and that the Earth is inside it? In fact, the Sun's envelope of gases extends well beyond the orbit of Pluto, out to the regions of the solar system where the 3-decade-old Voyager spacecraft are only now reaching.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003ca href=\"http://www.spaceweather.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Space weather\u003c/a>\" refers to the conditions in space caused by the outflow of electrically charged gases (plasma) coming from the Sun—what we call the \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/wind_character.html\" target=\"_blank\">solar wind\u003c/a>.\" The term \"space weather\" may conjure images of cosmic tornadoes, astral lightning bursts, and some Star Trek version of a galactic hurricane-- but actual space weather is nothing so Earthly and familiar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First of all, the \"air\" in space is nothing like the atmosphere we draw our breath from. \u003ca href=\"http://scipp.ucsc.edu/outreach/balloon/atmos/The%20Earth.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Earth air\u003c/a>, at the surface, is made of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other trace elements, and is relatively dense. \"Space air\" is mostly hydrogen-- \u003ca href=\"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/ionization.html\" target=\"_blank\">ionized hydrogen\u003c/a> at that (meaning stripped of its electrons and so electrically charged; the separated electrons are also blowing along in the solar wind).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Second, the gases of the solar wind are extremely rarified. Despite the talk of a solar atmosphere, solar wind, and space weather, space within the solar system is still almost a complete vacuum. At Earth's distance from the Sun, the average density of the solar wind is somewhere between 6 and 9 atoms (mostly hydrogen) per cubic centimeter. If you spread out the gas contained in an ordinary party balloon to this same thinness, it would fill a volume of space over 10 miles across!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Third, the solar wind, for all its sparseness, blows fast! Depending on conditions of space weather, the flow of solar wind past the Earth can speed along anywhere from 200 to 900 kilometers per second! Earth's fastest winds slug along at only a few hundred kilometers per HOUR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So how does space weather—the changing conditions of the solar wind—affect us on Earth? How might you, personally, have experienced, directly or indirectly, the effects of the Sun's gentle breeze?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most familiar phenomenon caused by space weather is \u003ca href=\"http://www.geo.mtu.edu/weather/aurora/\">Earth's beautiful auroras\u003c/a> —the northern and southern lights. Interactions between the solar wind and Earth's magnetic field and electrically charged particles trapped in it excite atoms in the upper atmosphere to emit light. And it's not just a softly glowing night light: the most powerful auroras can generate up to a trillion Watts of power!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar wind \"storms\" can not only produce more active auroras, but can cause fluctuations in Earth's magnetic field whose effects can be felt on the ground. These \"geomagnetic storms\" usually pass unnoticed, perhaps causing a tiny change in the direction that compass needles point-- but have also been known to overload electrical power grids and cause blackouts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the space around Earth, solar storms have been known to damage or disable satellites, and can put unprotected astronauts at risk. Space walks on the International Space Station are scheduled for times when space weather is - so to speak -\"sunny and calm.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thinking about space weather on Earth might seem like worrying over Atlantic hurricanes here in the Bay Area—but with more and more human activity taking place beyond the confines of our atmosphere, this is a very real and vital concern, and is taken very seriously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":null,"status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371080390,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":14,"wordCount":626},"headData":{"title":"Living in the Sun's Atmosphere | KQED","description":"Illustration of a blast of solar wind impacting Earth's protective magnetic field. Credit: NASABreathe in, exhale. Feel the air in your mouth, windpipe, and lungs. That's a sample of Earth's atmosphere: the thin layer of gases enveloping our planet. Did you know that the Sun also has an atmosphere, and that the Earth is inside","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Living in the Sun's Atmosphere","datePublished":"2008-03-28T19:26:54.000Z","dateModified":"2013-06-12T23:39:50.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"493 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2008/03/28/living-in-the-suns-atmosphere/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/03/28/living-in-the-suns-atmosphere/","disqusTitle":"Living in the Sun's Atmosphere","path":"/quest/493/living-in-the-suns-atmosphere","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/03/solarinteraction.jpg\">\u003cem>Illustration of a blast of solar wind impacting\u003cbr>\nEarth's protective magnetic field. Credit: NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Breathe in, exhale. Feel the air in your mouth, windpipe, and lungs. That's a sample of Earth's atmosphere: the thin layer of gases enveloping our planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did you know that the \u003ca href=\"http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/heliosph.html\">Sun also has an atmosphere\u003c/a>, and that the Earth is inside it? In fact, the Sun's envelope of gases extends well beyond the orbit of Pluto, out to the regions of the solar system where the 3-decade-old Voyager spacecraft are only now reaching.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003ca href=\"http://www.spaceweather.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Space weather\u003c/a>\" refers to the conditions in space caused by the outflow of electrically charged gases (plasma) coming from the Sun—what we call the \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/wind_character.html\" target=\"_blank\">solar wind\u003c/a>.\" The term \"space weather\" may conjure images of cosmic tornadoes, astral lightning bursts, and some Star Trek version of a galactic hurricane-- but actual space weather is nothing so Earthly and familiar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First of all, the \"air\" in space is nothing like the atmosphere we draw our breath from. \u003ca href=\"http://scipp.ucsc.edu/outreach/balloon/atmos/The%20Earth.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Earth air\u003c/a>, at the surface, is made of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other trace elements, and is relatively dense. \"Space air\" is mostly hydrogen-- \u003ca href=\"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/ionization.html\" target=\"_blank\">ionized hydrogen\u003c/a> at that (meaning stripped of its electrons and so electrically charged; the separated electrons are also blowing along in the solar wind).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Second, the gases of the solar wind are extremely rarified. Despite the talk of a solar atmosphere, solar wind, and space weather, space within the solar system is still almost a complete vacuum. At Earth's distance from the Sun, the average density of the solar wind is somewhere between 6 and 9 atoms (mostly hydrogen) per cubic centimeter. If you spread out the gas contained in an ordinary party balloon to this same thinness, it would fill a volume of space over 10 miles across!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Third, the solar wind, for all its sparseness, blows fast! Depending on conditions of space weather, the flow of solar wind past the Earth can speed along anywhere from 200 to 900 kilometers per second! Earth's fastest winds slug along at only a few hundred kilometers per HOUR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So how does space weather—the changing conditions of the solar wind—affect us on Earth? How might you, personally, have experienced, directly or indirectly, the effects of the Sun's gentle breeze?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most familiar phenomenon caused by space weather is \u003ca href=\"http://www.geo.mtu.edu/weather/aurora/\">Earth's beautiful auroras\u003c/a> —the northern and southern lights. Interactions between the solar wind and Earth's magnetic field and electrically charged particles trapped in it excite atoms in the upper atmosphere to emit light. And it's not just a softly glowing night light: the most powerful auroras can generate up to a trillion Watts of power!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar wind \"storms\" can not only produce more active auroras, but can cause fluctuations in Earth's magnetic field whose effects can be felt on the ground. These \"geomagnetic storms\" usually pass unnoticed, perhaps causing a tiny change in the direction that compass needles point-- but have also been known to overload electrical power grids and cause blackouts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the space around Earth, solar storms have been known to damage or disable satellites, and can put unprotected astronauts at risk. Space walks on the International Space Station are scheduled for times when space weather is - so to speak -\"sunny and calm.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thinking about space weather on Earth might seem like worrying over Atlantic hurricanes here in the Bay Area—but with more and more human activity taking place beyond the confines of our atmosphere, this is a very real and vital concern, and is taken very seriously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/493/living-in-the-suns-atmosphere","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_16"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_246","quest_543","quest_3351","quest_2530","quest_2700","quest_2718","quest_2827","quest_2832"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. 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But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/American-Suburb-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"13"},"link":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/American-Suburb-p1086805/","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"}},"baycurious":{"id":"baycurious","title":"Bay Curious","tagline":"Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time","info":"KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.","airtime":"THU 10pm, FRI 1am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Commonwealth Club of California"},"link":"/radio/program/commonwealth-club","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Commonwealth-Club-of-California-p1060/"}},"considerthis":{"id":"considerthis","title":"Consider This","tagline":"Make sense of the day","info":"Make sense of the day. Every weekday afternoon, Consider This helps you consider the major stories of the day in less than 15 minutes, featuring the reporting and storytelling resources of NPR. 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