New Fossils Suggest Kelp Forests Have Swayed in the Seas for at Least 32 Million Years
What a Blue Speck Found in Ancient Teeth Could Reveal About Female Artists in the Middle Ages
Earth in the Year 2015: Can You Ace the KQED Science Quiz?
From Fish Skin to Our Teeth: Tracing the Origin of Enamel
Mass Extinctions: The Case of the Vanishing Ediacarans
Wendy's Ceratops, a New Face in the Dinosaur Line
Stegosaurus, Male or Female? The Answer Is in the Plates
Fossil Study Detects Another Mass Extinction in the Deep Past
Join a Series of Geological Treasure Hunts With Earth Science Week 2014
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In writing about geology in the Bay Area and surroundings, he hopes to share some of the useful and pleasurable insights that geologists give us—not just facts about the deep past, but an attitude that might be called the \u003ci>deep present\u003c/i>.\r\n\r\nRead his \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/andrew-alden/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"http://http://science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9eaa0afc32f98c5fc7ce634437334a64?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":null,"facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"science","roles":["author"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Andrew Alden | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9eaa0afc32f98c5fc7ce634437334a64?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9eaa0afc32f98c5fc7ce634437334a64?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/andrew-alden"}},"breakingNewsReducer":{},"campaignFinanceReducer":{},"firebase":{"requesting":{},"requested":{},"timestamps":{},"data":{},"ordered":{},"auth":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"authError":null,"profile":{"isLoaded":false,"isEmpty":true},"listeners":{"byId":{},"allIds":[]},"isInitializing":false,"errors":[]},"navBarReducer":{"navBarId":"news","fullView":true,"showPlayer":false},"navMenuReducer":{"menus":[{"key":"menu1","items":[{"name":"News","link":"/","type":"title"},{"name":"Politics","link":"/politics"},{"name":"Science","link":"/science"},{"name":"Education","link":"/educationnews"},{"name":"Housing","link":"/housing"},{"name":"Immigration","link":"/immigration"},{"name":"Criminal Justice","link":"/criminaljustice"},{"name":"Silicon Valley","link":"/siliconvalley"},{"name":"Forum","link":"/forum"},{"name":"The California Report","link":"/californiareport"}]},{"key":"menu2","items":[{"name":"Arts & Culture","link":"/arts","type":"title"},{"name":"Critics’ Picks","link":"/thedolist"},{"name":"Cultural Commentary","link":"/artscommentary"},{"name":"Food & Drink","link":"/food"},{"name":"Bay Area Hip-Hop","link":"/bayareahiphop"},{"name":"Rebel Girls","link":"/rebelgirls"},{"name":"Arts Video","link":"/artsvideos"}]},{"key":"menu3","items":[{"name":"Podcasts","link":"/podcasts","type":"title"},{"name":"Bay Curious","link":"/podcasts/baycurious"},{"name":"Rightnowish","link":"/podcasts/rightnowish"},{"name":"The Bay","link":"/podcasts/thebay"},{"name":"On Our Watch","link":"/podcasts/onourwatch"},{"name":"Mindshift","link":"/podcasts/mindshift"},{"name":"Consider This","link":"/podcasts/considerthis"},{"name":"Political Breakdown","link":"/podcasts/politicalbreakdown"}]},{"key":"menu4","items":[{"name":"Live Radio","link":"/radio","type":"title"},{"name":"TV","link":"/tv","type":"title"},{"name":"Events","link":"/events","type":"title"},{"name":"For Educators","link":"/education","type":"title"},{"name":"Support KQED","link":"/support","type":"title"},{"name":"About","link":"/about","type":"title"},{"name":"Help Center","link":"https://kqed-helpcenter.kqed.org/s","type":"title"}]}]},"pagesReducer":{},"postsReducer":{"stream_live":{"type":"live","id":"stream_live","audioUrl":"https://streams.kqed.org/kqedradio","title":"Live Stream","excerpt":"Live Stream information currently unavailable.","link":"/radio","featImg":"","label":{"name":"KQED Live","link":"/"}},"stream_kqedNewscast":{"type":"posts","id":"stream_kqedNewscast","audioUrl":"https://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/RDnews/newscast.mp3?_=1","title":"KQED Newscast","featImg":"","label":{"name":"88.5 FM","link":"/"}},"science_1991212":{"type":"posts","id":"science_1991212","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"1991212","score":null,"sort":[1706040351000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"new-fossils-suggest-kelp-forests-have-swayed-in-the-seas-for-at-least-32-million-years","title":"New Fossils Suggest Kelp Forests Have Swayed in the Seas for at Least 32 Million Years","publishDate":1706040351,"format":"standard","headTitle":"New Fossils Suggest Kelp Forests Have Swayed in the Seas for at Least 32 Million Years | KQED","labelTerm":{},"content":"\u003cp>The kelp forests that hug the Pacific coastline are an underwater jungle. They’re a thicket of colossal algae intermixed with a pageant of life that includes snails, urchins, sea lions, sea otters, and a host of seabirds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The current Pacific kelp forests are the base of very rich shallow marine ecosystems,” says \u003ca href=\"https://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/looy/\">Cindy Looy\u003c/a>, a paleobotanist at the University of California at Berkeley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A study published in \u003ca href=\"https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2317054121\">\u003cem>PNAS\u003c/em>\u003c/a> presents new evidence that the first kelps were much older than we once suspected, dating back 32 million years — well before the arrival of many of their present-day animal inhabitants.[aside postID='science_1973217,science_1976045,science_1952335' label='Related coverage']\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means that kelp was likely available as a food source for ancient marine mammals. And that the foundation of the ecosystem was already in place when kelp later evolved and grew dramatically in height, providing an even greater range of habitats to the ancestors of the animals we associate with them today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When Looy gazes out at the Pacific Ocean from Point Lobos State Natural Reserve in Monterey, California, she knows the kelp forest with all its attendant species pulsates just below the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Just to think,” she says, “that we now added a little tiny piece of the puzzle of when [the kelps] started and how the ecosystem diversified — that makes me very proud.”\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>A lucky find at the beach\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Jim Goedert is a retired railroad signal inspector. He lives outside of Tacoma, Washington where, for years, he’s regularly driven up to the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to walk along the rocky shoreline.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Gray whales and seals come in, and occasionally orcas,” he says. “There are kelp beds offshore.” At low tide, when large swaths of the beach become exposed, Goedert goes in search of fossils including hard, round masses called concretions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We would crack these open,” he says. “And sometimes there’s a crab or some other fossil in these rocks. But I would find these little squiggly veins or roots. I couldn’t really tell what they were.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One day, during a break on one of his beach walks, Goedert came across a mound that had washed ashore of kelp holdfasts — the root-like structures that fasten the towering algae to the seafloor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And I thought, ‘That’s what that thing is — kelp,'” he says. “It was just an aha moment.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Goedert packed up some of his best specimens, drove to the post office, and shipped them to Stockholm to a professional.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He just kept sending me holdfasts,” recounts \u003ca href=\"https://www.nrm.se/english/researchandcollections/palaeobiology/staffandcontacts/steffenkiel.9003235.html\">Steffen Kiel\u003c/a>, a senior curator at the Swedish Museum of Natural History and a collaborator and friend of Goedert’s. Some of the fossils weren’t that impressive but “sometimes they were, like, wow,” he says. Still, “I just left it alone for a few years because, as usual, I had other things to do.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1991214\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 2288px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1991214\" src=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"2288\" height=\"1626\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2.jpg 2288w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-800x569.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-1020x725.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-160x114.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-768x546.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-1536x1092.jpg 1536w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-2048x1455.jpg 2048w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-1920x1364.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 2288px) 100vw, 2288px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A fossil showing kelp ‘holdfasts,’ the root-like structures that serve to tether the algae to the seafloor. \u003ccite>(Steffen Kiel)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch2>Asking a fossil how old it is\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Kelp fossils are exceedingly rare. “We all know things fossilize — big vertebrates, dinosaurs, things with bones and hard parts,” says \u003ca href=\"https://www.ceridwenfraser.com/\">Ceridwyn Fraser\u003c/a>, a marine scientist at the University of Otago in New Zealand. “But kelp is a very squidgy organism.” Plus, says Kiel, “they quickly rot away because they are eaten up by microbes and various animals. Kelps are essential[ly] edible, nutritious soft tissue.” It all adds up to very little kelp making it into the fossil record.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Years ago, researchers used a single specimen from California to estimate that complex kelps emerged at least 13 or 14 million years ago. (Complex kelps differ from simple kelps in a few ways, including that they have distinct stems and leaves.) More recently, genetics helped push that date back to at least \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790319300892\">30 million years\u003c/a>. But there was no fossil evidence to back that number up, which made Kiel wonder whether the samples he’d received from Goedert might offer some insight. So eventually, he took a closer look, cutting into them and polishing their surfaces.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On one, a splotch of root-like tendrils appears to be draped across the rock. “That’s the holdfast,” Kiel says, pointing. “I have various specimens where they were sitting on a bivalve shell, on a clamshell or especially often on barnacles.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He took one of those fossilized shells that the kelp had glued itself to and performed a chemical analysis involving strontium isotopes to determine its age.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We then knew exactly, pretty much exactly, that these fossils were 32 million years old,” Kiel says. “No doubt about it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This result confirms the earlier genetics work, but the fossils are stronger proof that complex kelp dates back to the early Oligocene, a time of dramatic global cooling.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The whole world’s oceans got a hell [of a] lot colder right at that time,” Kiel says. “Kelp like it cold. So that was a perfect fit.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Why the earlier arrival of kelp matters\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>The fact that complex kelp has been around for so long means a couple of things. First, it helps resolve a puzzle about an ancient vegetarian marine mammal related to today’s manatees called the desmostylian.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“People were wondering what they were actually feeding on 30 million years ago,” Kiel says. “What kind of green fresh food would there be? And now, our kelp fossils show, yeah, hippo-sized desmostylians most likely were happily feeding on this kelp.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s logical, Looy says: “Kelps can grow incredibly fast, and those desmostylians are relatively big, and they have to eat a lot to stay alive.” Now that the researchers know that both kelp and desmostylians were alive at the same time, “we can more or less rewrite the history of the kelp ecosystems,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s the second insight: “This whole rich ecosystem that we know now must have gradually evolved,” Looy says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That is, for millions of years, the kelp ecosystem was quite simple, with the kelps themselves being somewhat short, maybe a few feet tall. Then, around 14 million years ago, much taller kelps evolved, forming the underwater forests we know today. And that’s when a thriving hub of biodiversity slowly began to materialize in this new wealth of vertical habitat — “all these animals that characterize modern kelp ecosystems — full with all sorts of life,” says Kiel, from invertebrates to larger grazers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraser, the marine scientist, says the findings are exciting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I have been approached before by people who thought they had kelp fossils, and I wasn’t convinced,” says Fraser, who wasn’t involved in the study. “But what we’re looking at are very clearly kelp.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraser studies kelp evolution and how its DNA mutates, something she anchors in time using the fossil record.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And the annoying thing about kelp is there’s hardly anything known from the fossil record,” Fraser says. “So this will be a tool that I can use now to better understand how kelps are evolving and what’s happened through time.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kiel says he’s delighted that, once again, fossils have taught him a familiar yet fundamental lesson about our world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To him, they’re an archive of life throughout Earth’s history — an archive that sometimes washes ashore where all you have to do is look for it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">\u003cem>Copyright 2024 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=New+fossils+suggest+kelp+forests+have+swayed+in+the+seas+for+at+least+32+million+years&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/em>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"A new study of kelp forests from the coast of Washington state show that kelp forests, which host all manner of marine life, developed tens of millions of years ago. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1706040142,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":33,"wordCount":1332},"headData":{"title":"New Fossils Suggest Kelp Forests Have Swayed in the Seas for at Least 32 Million Years | KQED","description":"A new study of kelp forests from the coast of Washington state show that kelp forests, which host all manner of marine life, developed tens of millions of years ago. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"New Fossils Suggest Kelp Forests Have Swayed in the Seas for at Least 32 Million Years","datePublished":"2024-01-23T20:05:51.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-23T20:02:22.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"source":"NPR","sticky":false,"nprByline":"\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/people/297147967/ari-daniel\">Ari Daniel\u003c/a>","nprImageAgency":"NOAA","nprStoryId":"1226146217","nprApiLink":"http://api.npr.org/query?id=1226146217&apiKey=MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004","nprHtmlLink":"https://www.npr.org/2024/01/23/1226146217/new-fossils-suggest-kelp-forests-have-swayed-in-the-seas-for-at-least-32-million?ft=nprml&f=1226146217","nprRetrievedStory":"1","nprPubDate":"Tue, 23 Jan 2024 05:00:00 -0500","nprStoryDate":"Tue, 23 Jan 2024 05:00:13 -0500","nprLastModifiedDate":"Tue, 23 Jan 2024 05:00:13 -0500","excludeFromSiteSearch":"Include","showOnAuthorArchivePages":"No","articleAge":"0","path":"/science/1991212/new-fossils-suggest-kelp-forests-have-swayed-in-the-seas-for-at-least-32-million-years","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The kelp forests that hug the Pacific coastline are an underwater jungle. They’re a thicket of colossal algae intermixed with a pageant of life that includes snails, urchins, sea lions, sea otters, and a host of seabirds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The current Pacific kelp forests are the base of very rich shallow marine ecosystems,” says \u003ca href=\"https://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/looy/\">Cindy Looy\u003c/a>, a paleobotanist at the University of California at Berkeley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A study published in \u003ca href=\"https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2317054121\">\u003cem>PNAS\u003c/em>\u003c/a> presents new evidence that the first kelps were much older than we once suspected, dating back 32 million years — well before the arrival of many of their present-day animal inhabitants.\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"aside","attributes":{"named":{"postid":"science_1973217,science_1976045,science_1952335","label":"Related coverage "},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means that kelp was likely available as a food source for ancient marine mammals. And that the foundation of the ecosystem was already in place when kelp later evolved and grew dramatically in height, providing an even greater range of habitats to the ancestors of the animals we associate with them today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When Looy gazes out at the Pacific Ocean from Point Lobos State Natural Reserve in Monterey, California, she knows the kelp forest with all its attendant species pulsates just below the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Just to think,” she says, “that we now added a little tiny piece of the puzzle of when [the kelps] started and how the ecosystem diversified — that makes me very proud.”\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>A lucky find at the beach\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Jim Goedert is a retired railroad signal inspector. He lives outside of Tacoma, Washington where, for years, he’s regularly driven up to the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to walk along the rocky shoreline.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Gray whales and seals come in, and occasionally orcas,” he says. “There are kelp beds offshore.” At low tide, when large swaths of the beach become exposed, Goedert goes in search of fossils including hard, round masses called concretions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We would crack these open,” he says. “And sometimes there’s a crab or some other fossil in these rocks. But I would find these little squiggly veins or roots. I couldn’t really tell what they were.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One day, during a break on one of his beach walks, Goedert came across a mound that had washed ashore of kelp holdfasts — the root-like structures that fasten the towering algae to the seafloor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And I thought, ‘That’s what that thing is — kelp,'” he says. “It was just an aha moment.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Goedert packed up some of his best specimens, drove to the post office, and shipped them to Stockholm to a professional.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He just kept sending me holdfasts,” recounts \u003ca href=\"https://www.nrm.se/english/researchandcollections/palaeobiology/staffandcontacts/steffenkiel.9003235.html\">Steffen Kiel\u003c/a>, a senior curator at the Swedish Museum of Natural History and a collaborator and friend of Goedert’s. Some of the fossils weren’t that impressive but “sometimes they were, like, wow,” he says. Still, “I just left it alone for a few years because, as usual, I had other things to do.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1991214\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 2288px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1991214\" src=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"2288\" height=\"1626\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2.jpg 2288w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-800x569.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-1020x725.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-160x114.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-768x546.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-1536x1092.jpg 1536w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-2048x1455.jpg 2048w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2024/01/s169277_fossil_kelp_holdfast_custom-de5c315f6055f703f989b0c2da4d52bba05252a2-1920x1364.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 2288px) 100vw, 2288px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A fossil showing kelp ‘holdfasts,’ the root-like structures that serve to tether the algae to the seafloor. \u003ccite>(Steffen Kiel)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch2>Asking a fossil how old it is\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Kelp fossils are exceedingly rare. “We all know things fossilize — big vertebrates, dinosaurs, things with bones and hard parts,” says \u003ca href=\"https://www.ceridwenfraser.com/\">Ceridwyn Fraser\u003c/a>, a marine scientist at the University of Otago in New Zealand. “But kelp is a very squidgy organism.” Plus, says Kiel, “they quickly rot away because they are eaten up by microbes and various animals. Kelps are essential[ly] edible, nutritious soft tissue.” It all adds up to very little kelp making it into the fossil record.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Years ago, researchers used a single specimen from California to estimate that complex kelps emerged at least 13 or 14 million years ago. (Complex kelps differ from simple kelps in a few ways, including that they have distinct stems and leaves.) More recently, genetics helped push that date back to at least \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790319300892\">30 million years\u003c/a>. But there was no fossil evidence to back that number up, which made Kiel wonder whether the samples he’d received from Goedert might offer some insight. So eventually, he took a closer look, cutting into them and polishing their surfaces.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On one, a splotch of root-like tendrils appears to be draped across the rock. “That’s the holdfast,” Kiel says, pointing. “I have various specimens where they were sitting on a bivalve shell, on a clamshell or especially often on barnacles.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He took one of those fossilized shells that the kelp had glued itself to and performed a chemical analysis involving strontium isotopes to determine its age.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We then knew exactly, pretty much exactly, that these fossils were 32 million years old,” Kiel says. “No doubt about it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This result confirms the earlier genetics work, but the fossils are stronger proof that complex kelp dates back to the early Oligocene, a time of dramatic global cooling.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The whole world’s oceans got a hell [of a] lot colder right at that time,” Kiel says. “Kelp like it cold. So that was a perfect fit.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Why the earlier arrival of kelp matters\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>The fact that complex kelp has been around for so long means a couple of things. First, it helps resolve a puzzle about an ancient vegetarian marine mammal related to today’s manatees called the desmostylian.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“People were wondering what they were actually feeding on 30 million years ago,” Kiel says. “What kind of green fresh food would there be? And now, our kelp fossils show, yeah, hippo-sized desmostylians most likely were happily feeding on this kelp.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s logical, Looy says: “Kelps can grow incredibly fast, and those desmostylians are relatively big, and they have to eat a lot to stay alive.” Now that the researchers know that both kelp and desmostylians were alive at the same time, “we can more or less rewrite the history of the kelp ecosystems,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s the second insight: “This whole rich ecosystem that we know now must have gradually evolved,” Looy says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That is, for millions of years, the kelp ecosystem was quite simple, with the kelps themselves being somewhat short, maybe a few feet tall. Then, around 14 million years ago, much taller kelps evolved, forming the underwater forests we know today. And that’s when a thriving hub of biodiversity slowly began to materialize in this new wealth of vertical habitat — “all these animals that characterize modern kelp ecosystems — full with all sorts of life,” says Kiel, from invertebrates to larger grazers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraser, the marine scientist, says the findings are exciting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I have been approached before by people who thought they had kelp fossils, and I wasn’t convinced,” says Fraser, who wasn’t involved in the study. “But what we’re looking at are very clearly kelp.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraser studies kelp evolution and how its DNA mutates, something she anchors in time using the fossil record.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And the annoying thing about kelp is there’s hardly anything known from the fossil record,” Fraser says. “So this will be a tool that I can use now to better understand how kelps are evolving and what’s happened through time.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kiel says he’s delighted that, once again, fossils have taught him a familiar yet fundamental lesson about our world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To him, they’re an archive of life throughout Earth’s history — an archive that sometimes washes ashore where all you have to do is look for it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">\u003cem>Copyright 2024 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=New+fossils+suggest+kelp+forests+have+swayed+in+the+seas+for+at+least+32+million+years&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/em>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/1991212/new-fossils-suggest-kelp-forests-have-swayed-in-the-seas-for-at-least-32-million-years","authors":["byline_science_1991212"],"categories":["science_2874","science_31","science_35","science_40","science_4450"],"tags":["science_323","science_5196","science_349","science_3265","science_2549","science_843","science_1155"],"featImg":"science_1991213","label":"source_science_1991212"},"science_1936646":{"type":"posts","id":"science_1936646","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"1936646","score":null,"sort":[1547222410000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"what-a-blue-speck-found-in-ancient-teeth-could-reveal-about-female-artists-in-the-middle-ages","title":"What a Blue Speck Found in Ancient Teeth Could Reveal About Female Artists in the Middle Ages","publishDate":1547222410,"format":"standard","headTitle":"What a Blue Speck Found in Ancient Teeth Could Reveal About Female Artists in the Middle Ages | KQED","labelTerm":{},"content":"\u003cp>Tiny bits of blue pigment found in the teeth of a medieval skeleton reveal that more than 850 years ago, this seemingly ordinary woman was very likely involved in the production of lavishly illustrated sacred texts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The unexpected discovery, \u003ca href=\"http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau7126\">described\u003c/a> in the journal \u003cem>Science Advances,\u003c/em> astonished scientists who weren’t setting out to study female artists in the Middle Ages. It adds to a growing recognition that women, and not just monks, labored as the anonymous scribes who painstakingly copied manuscripts and decorated the pages to dazzle the eye.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This particular woman lived in a small religious community at Dalheim, Germany. Little is known about life there, says \u003ca href=\"http://christinawarinner.com/about-us/christina-warinner/\">Christina Warinner\u003c/a> of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Germany.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Basically all that remains are the stone foundations. A broken comb was found, but almost nothing else,” Warinner says. “There are no books that survived. There’s no art that survives. It’s known only from a handful of scraps of text that mention it in passing.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She and a colleague were examining the teeth of skeletons from this community’s cemetery to see what had been preserved in the dental calculus, or tartar. Tartar forms from sticky plaque that traps remnants of food, bacteria and even pollen and then hardens over time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s really an extraordinary material,” Warinner says. “It’s actually the only part of your body that fossilizes while you’re still alive.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1936652\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1936652\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-800x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-240x180.jpg 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-375x281.jpg 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-520x390.jpg 520w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200.jpg 915w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">During the European Middle Ages, Afghanistan was the only known source of the rare blue stone lapis lazuli. \u003ccite>(Christina Warinner/Science Advances)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Her colleague \u003ca href=\"https://www.york.ac.uk/archaeology/staff/research-staff/anita-radini/\">Anita Radini\u003c/a>, of the University of York in the United Kingdom, spotted something bright blue in the dental sample from this woman.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was absolutely unbelievable. It almost looked like there were robins’ eggs on the microscope slide — they were such vibrant blue particles,” Warinner recalls. “I remember joking around at the time that maybe we discovered an artist painting with lapis lazuli.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The idea seemed absurd. After all, lapis lazuli was one of the most expensive pigments known in the Middle Ages. At the time, it came from just one source — a region of Afghanistan — and was used only by artists of exceptional skill.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was rare,” Warinner says. “It’s really iconic. It’s kind of the blue that we associate with the Middles Ages that’s absent in Roman art.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers turned to technologies that could analyze the elemental composition of the microscopic particles as well as the mineral structure. “And ultimately we did find that it was indeed lapis lazuli, which was really, really surprising,” Warinner says. “Once it all came together that this was lapis lazuli, and this was a woman, and she was in this kind of small, remote place, really far away from where this lapis lazuli would have come from or been traded from, it was pretty extraordinary.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1936647\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1936647\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead.jpe\" alt=\"\" width=\"639\" height=\"622\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead.jpe 639w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-160x156.jpe 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-240x234.jpe 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-375x365.jpe 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-520x506.jpe 520w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-32x32.jpe 32w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-50x50.jpe 50w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This image shows Guda, a 12th century nun, and the inscription reads, “Guda, a sinful woman, wrote and painted this book.” It’s a rare example of a manuscript signed by a female scribe. \u003ccite>(Frankfurt University Library)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Warinner reached out to \u003ca href=\"https://history.osu.edu/people/beach.174\">Alison Beach\u003c/a>, a professor of medieval history at Ohio State University in Columbus. “I realized this is a really sensational find,” Beach says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s quite a bit of evidence of female contributions to book production. And it’s gotten more attention in the past 20 years,” Beach says. “But I still think that image of the monk as the producer of books is very central and very resilient.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of those books that were signed with the name of the scribe before the 12th century, less than 1 percent can be attributed to women, the researchers write in their report. But Beach says it’s just impossible to know how widespread women’s participation was, because many libraries of medieval books have been lost to history. What’s more, most of the surviving books from this period were produced by scribes who did not sign their work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’m still trying to convince colleagues that they should immediately consider female book production or ownership or use when they encounter an anonymous manuscript in the Middles Ages,” Beach says. “Was ‘anonymous’ a man or a woman? We really just don’t know for most of them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers considered various explanations for how the blue pigment ended up in the woman’s teeth. One possibility is that she wasn’t an artist but rather engaged in devotional kissing of a decorated text. “You’d have to be doing a lot of kissing of a book over a lot of time to get that much lapis lazuli pigment,” Beach says. “That one seemed, to me, to be the least plausible.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another possibility was that the woman consumed the pigment as a kind of medicine. That also seems unlikely, given the lack of evidence that this was common in Germany in the 11th and 12th centuries. What’s more, the lapis lazuli residue was found more toward the front of the mouth than the back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I thought they made a nice case that because it is up near the lips, that it was most likely related to the notion of moistening the brush,” says \u003ca href=\"https://blair.vanderbilt.edu/bio/cynthia-cyrus\">Cynthia Cyrus\u003c/a> of Vanderbilt University, who has studied medieval scribes associated with women’s convents but was not part of the research team. “As you put the tip of the brush into your mouth to bring it to a point, a little bit of the pigment residue then makes its way into the dental structure. That would explain the differential between back of mouth and front of mouth.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is true that simply grinding lapis lazuli can produce fine, airborne dust that ends up on the lips and in the saliva, the researchers found — because Radini tried it herself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, given the small size of this religious community — only around 15 people — it’s likely that this artist produced her own materials rather than making them for sale or for someone else.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You’re going to be creating your own pigments and using your pigments,” Cyrus says. “This individual may, in fact, have been doing both of those activities.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Cyrus’ view, this finding is extraordinary.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It is a brand-new kind of evidence for scribal activity, and one that we haven’t been on the alert for,” she says. “We now know that evidence from teeth, and other skeletal remains, can really point towards what the daily life of a particular monastery was like. That will lead us to ask different questions when we’re doing excavations and combine different kinds of evidence to get a better understanding.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">\u003cem>Copyright 2019 NPR. To see more, visit \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org\">www.npr.org\u003c/a>.\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=A+Blue+Clue+In+Medieval+Teeth+May+Bespeak+A+Woman%27s+Artistry+Circa+A.D.+1000+&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/em>\u003c/div>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Analysis of fossilized dental tartar of a medieval woman buried in a German monastery reveals specks of blue to be lapis lazuli — a luxurious pigment used to create gorgeous illuminated manuscripts.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704927205,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":25,"wordCount":1211},"headData":{"title":"What a Blue Speck Found in Ancient Teeth Could Reveal About Female Artists in the Middle Ages | KQED","description":"Analysis of fossilized dental tartar of a medieval woman buried in a German monastery reveals specks of blue to be lapis lazuli — a luxurious pigment used to create gorgeous illuminated manuscripts.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"What a Blue Speck Found in Ancient Teeth Could Reveal About Female Artists in the Middle Ages","datePublished":"2019-01-11T16:00:10.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-10T22:53:25.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"source":"Science","sticky":false,"nprByline":"Nell Greenfieldboyce\u003c/br>","nprStoryId":"683283982","nprApiLink":"http://api.npr.org/query?id=683283982&apiKey=MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004","nprHtmlLink":"https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/01/09/683283982/a-blue-clue-in-medieval-teeth-may-bespeak-a-womans-artistry-circa-1-000-a-d?ft=nprml&f=683283982","nprRetrievedStory":"1","nprPubDate":"Wed, 09 Jan 2019 19:18:00 -0500","nprStoryDate":"Wed, 09 Jan 2019 14:05:00 -0500","nprLastModifiedDate":"Wed, 09 Jan 2019 19:18:01 -0500","nprAudio":"https://ondemand.npr.org/anon.npr-mp3/npr/atc/2019/01/20190109_atc_a_blue_clue_in_medieval_teeth_may_bespeak_a_womans_artistry_circa_1000_ad.mp3?orgId=1&topicId=1128&d=215&p=2&story=683283982&ft=nprml&f=683283982","nprAudioM3u":"http://api.npr.org/m3u/1683732144-d4015a.m3u?orgId=1&topicId=1128&d=215&p=2&story=683283982&ft=nprml&f=683283982","audioTrackLength":216,"path":"/science/1936646/what-a-blue-speck-found-in-ancient-teeth-could-reveal-about-female-artists-in-the-middle-ages","audioUrl":"https://ondemand.npr.org/anon.npr-mp3/npr/atc/2019/01/20190109_atc_a_blue_clue_in_medieval_teeth_may_bespeak_a_womans_artistry_circa_1000_ad.mp3?orgId=1&topicId=1128&d=215&p=2&story=683283982&ft=nprml&f=683283982","parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Tiny bits of blue pigment found in the teeth of a medieval skeleton reveal that more than 850 years ago, this seemingly ordinary woman was very likely involved in the production of lavishly illustrated sacred texts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The unexpected discovery, \u003ca href=\"http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau7126\">described\u003c/a> in the journal \u003cem>Science Advances,\u003c/em> astonished scientists who weren’t setting out to study female artists in the Middle Ages. It adds to a growing recognition that women, and not just monks, labored as the anonymous scribes who painstakingly copied manuscripts and decorated the pages to dazzle the eye.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This particular woman lived in a small religious community at Dalheim, Germany. Little is known about life there, says \u003ca href=\"http://christinawarinner.com/about-us/christina-warinner/\">Christina Warinner\u003c/a> of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Germany.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Basically all that remains are the stone foundations. A broken comb was found, but almost nothing else,” Warinner says. “There are no books that survived. There’s no art that survives. It’s known only from a handful of scraps of text that mention it in passing.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She and a colleague were examining the teeth of skeletons from this community’s cemetery to see what had been preserved in the dental calculus, or tartar. Tartar forms from sticky plaque that traps remnants of food, bacteria and even pollen and then hardens over time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s really an extraordinary material,” Warinner says. “It’s actually the only part of your body that fossilizes while you’re still alive.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1936652\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1936652\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-800x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-240x180.jpg 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-375x281.jpg 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200-520x390.jpg 520w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/radini4hr-700e6788a93e5ef898448c2569c3ca8519910954-s1200.jpg 915w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">During the European Middle Ages, Afghanistan was the only known source of the rare blue stone lapis lazuli. \u003ccite>(Christina Warinner/Science Advances)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Her colleague \u003ca href=\"https://www.york.ac.uk/archaeology/staff/research-staff/anita-radini/\">Anita Radini\u003c/a>, of the University of York in the United Kingdom, spotted something bright blue in the dental sample from this woman.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was absolutely unbelievable. It almost looked like there were robins’ eggs on the microscope slide — they were such vibrant blue particles,” Warinner recalls. “I remember joking around at the time that maybe we discovered an artist painting with lapis lazuli.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The idea seemed absurd. After all, lapis lazuli was one of the most expensive pigments known in the Middle Ages. At the time, it came from just one source — a region of Afghanistan — and was used only by artists of exceptional skill.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was rare,” Warinner says. “It’s really iconic. It’s kind of the blue that we associate with the Middles Ages that’s absent in Roman art.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers turned to technologies that could analyze the elemental composition of the microscopic particles as well as the mineral structure. “And ultimately we did find that it was indeed lapis lazuli, which was really, really surprising,” Warinner says. “Once it all came together that this was lapis lazuli, and this was a woman, and she was in this kind of small, remote place, really far away from where this lapis lazuli would have come from or been traded from, it was pretty extraordinary.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1936647\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1936647\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead.jpe\" alt=\"\" width=\"639\" height=\"622\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead.jpe 639w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-160x156.jpe 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-240x234.jpe 240w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-375x365.jpe 375w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-520x506.jpe 520w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-32x32.jpe 32w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/01/lapis-1_enl-75cdb0a59fc72b4a25bd476677f69e61c92c3ead-50x50.jpe 50w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This image shows Guda, a 12th century nun, and the inscription reads, “Guda, a sinful woman, wrote and painted this book.” It’s a rare example of a manuscript signed by a female scribe. \u003ccite>(Frankfurt University Library)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Warinner reached out to \u003ca href=\"https://history.osu.edu/people/beach.174\">Alison Beach\u003c/a>, a professor of medieval history at Ohio State University in Columbus. “I realized this is a really sensational find,” Beach says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s quite a bit of evidence of female contributions to book production. And it’s gotten more attention in the past 20 years,” Beach says. “But I still think that image of the monk as the producer of books is very central and very resilient.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of those books that were signed with the name of the scribe before the 12th century, less than 1 percent can be attributed to women, the researchers write in their report. But Beach says it’s just impossible to know how widespread women’s participation was, because many libraries of medieval books have been lost to history. What’s more, most of the surviving books from this period were produced by scribes who did not sign their work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’m still trying to convince colleagues that they should immediately consider female book production or ownership or use when they encounter an anonymous manuscript in the Middles Ages,” Beach says. “Was ‘anonymous’ a man or a woman? We really just don’t know for most of them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers considered various explanations for how the blue pigment ended up in the woman’s teeth. One possibility is that she wasn’t an artist but rather engaged in devotional kissing of a decorated text. “You’d have to be doing a lot of kissing of a book over a lot of time to get that much lapis lazuli pigment,” Beach says. “That one seemed, to me, to be the least plausible.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another possibility was that the woman consumed the pigment as a kind of medicine. That also seems unlikely, given the lack of evidence that this was common in Germany in the 11th and 12th centuries. What’s more, the lapis lazuli residue was found more toward the front of the mouth than the back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I thought they made a nice case that because it is up near the lips, that it was most likely related to the notion of moistening the brush,” says \u003ca href=\"https://blair.vanderbilt.edu/bio/cynthia-cyrus\">Cynthia Cyrus\u003c/a> of Vanderbilt University, who has studied medieval scribes associated with women’s convents but was not part of the research team. “As you put the tip of the brush into your mouth to bring it to a point, a little bit of the pigment residue then makes its way into the dental structure. That would explain the differential between back of mouth and front of mouth.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is true that simply grinding lapis lazuli can produce fine, airborne dust that ends up on the lips and in the saliva, the researchers found — because Radini tried it herself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, given the small size of this religious community — only around 15 people — it’s likely that this artist produced her own materials rather than making them for sale or for someone else.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You’re going to be creating your own pigments and using your pigments,” Cyrus says. “This individual may, in fact, have been doing both of those activities.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Cyrus’ view, this finding is extraordinary.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It is a brand-new kind of evidence for scribal activity, and one that we haven’t been on the alert for,” she says. “We now know that evidence from teeth, and other skeletal remains, can really point towards what the daily life of a particular monastery was like. That will lead us to ask different questions when we’re doing excavations and combine different kinds of evidence to get a better understanding.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">\u003cem>Copyright 2019 NPR. To see more, visit \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org\">www.npr.org\u003c/a>.\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=A+Blue+Clue+In+Medieval+Teeth+May+Bespeak+A+Woman%27s+Artistry+Circa+A.D.+1000+&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/em>\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/1936646/what-a-blue-speck-found-in-ancient-teeth-could-reveal-about-female-artists-in-the-middle-ages","authors":["byline_science_1936646"],"categories":["science_35","science_38","science_16","science_40"],"tags":["science_305","science_349","science_218","science_3838"],"featImg":"science_1936649","label":"source_science_1936646"},"science_430896":{"type":"posts","id":"science_430896","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"430896","score":null,"sort":[1450965644000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"earth-in-the-year-2015-can-you-ace-the-kqed-science-quiz","title":"Earth in the Year 2015: Can You Ace the KQED Science Quiz?","publishDate":1450965644,"format":"standard","headTitle":"Earth in the Year 2015: Can You Ace the KQED Science Quiz? | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cp>From planetology to paleontology, 2015 was full of news in the Earth sciences. Ace this 20-question quiz and you’ll have plenty of planetary tidbits from KQED Science to quick-turn an awkward conversation at your holiday table. Who doesn’t need that?\u003c/p>\n\u003col>\n\u003cli>It’s the ultimate selfie: NASA launched this satellite that hovers between Earth and the Sun, taking snapshots of the whole planet about 15 times a day. Do you know its name?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Scientists reported that the ash from some volcanoes contains abundant spherules — glassy droplets as fine as powder — that don’t arise from the splashing and explosions of lava. What makes them instead?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Sediments in the bottom of a rare sinkhole show that a very large tsunami, triggered by a magnitude-9 quake in Alaska, struck this state about 500 years ago. What state is that?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A study showed that the coral-sand islands of the Maldives are maintained by the activity of parrotfish. What do the fish do?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Researchers found that parts of Mars contain hydrated minerals, as well as dark streaks in the ground that appear during the Martian summer. What did they conclude?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Last month, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rose above a round number and will not go back below it in the foreseeable future. What is that number?\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29853\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29853\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/Daisy-parrotfish-wikimedia.jpg\" alt=\"Daisy Parrotfish in the Maldives\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Species like the daisy parrotfish \u003ci>Chlorurus sordidus\u003c/i>, are a crucial link in the natural chain that builds dry land in the Maldives archipelago. \u003ccite>(Julien Bidet/Wikimedia)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>Two groups of scientists called for research programs to study the invisible ecosystems of microscopic organisms found everywhere we look. What’s the name for those ecosystems?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Early this year a spacecraft named MESSENGER ended several years of planetary observations by crashing into its target. What is that planet?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft sent back images of high mountain ranges, plus what look like volcanoes and glaciers, on a place it took more than 9 years to reach. What is that distant world?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A fossil study proposed that the ancient soft-bodied creatures called Ediacarans went extinct when newly evolved animals ruined their habitat. What scientist first proposed this kind of extinction?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>In December, NOAA reported that the previous month was the warmest November ever recorded. How many record-breaking months in a row did that make?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A new National Monument was established in northern California that displays signs of dramatic geologic activity including the clash of tectonic plates, volcanic eruptions and the wrenching of modern earthquake faults. Do you know its name?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>True or false? A strong El Niño has been active since early summer.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104383\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104383\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg\" alt=\"Head of Wendiceratops\" width=\"800\" height=\"656\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-400x328.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-960x787.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>, as reconstructed by scientific illustrator \u003ca href=\"http://www.ddufault.com/paleo.html\">Danielle Dufault\u003c/a> for the Royal Ontario Museum \u003ccite>(Danielle Dufault/PLOS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>Fossils of a three-horned dinosaur with a flamboyant bony frill behind its head were found in a Canadian park and assigned the name \u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>. Why that name?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>After an earthquake rips the ground, you can walk around the fresh geological evidence taking snapshots, and scientists can turn those images into an accurate 3D model. What’s the name of that technique?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A widely used record of the Sun’s historical activity was revised, erasing an apparent increase in solar energy that some researchers used to argue against greenhouse warming. What is that record?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Researchers showed that the Hayward fault is closely connected to a neighboring fault, making it more likely than previously thought that both can rupture together in an earthquake the size of 1906’s Big One. What’s the second fault?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Clever observations by a spacecraft peeking through dense clouds yielded conclusive evidence of volcanoes caught in the act of erupting. What planet was this?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>After 100 years of guessing, a fossil study of stegosaurs — those big dinosaurs with the rows of bony plates down their backs — found a way to tell the males and females apart. What is it?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>The U.S. Geological Survey updated its long-term earthquake forecast this year. Which Bay Area earthquake fault is considered most likely to cause a major quake over the next few decades?\u003c/li>\n\u003cp>\u003cb>Here are the answers, each linked to its KQED Science story.\u003c/b>\u003c/p>\n\u003col>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/news/2015/10/20/nasas-new-snapshots-of-earth-from-a-satellite-far-far-away\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The “selfie satellite” is DSCOVR\u003c/a>, or Deep Space Climate Observatory.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/03/05/volcanoes-and-lightning-make-tiny-glass-balls-together/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The new variety of spherule is made\u003c/a> when lightning lashes the ash-filled clouds above erupting volcanoes.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_27883\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-27883\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/03/galunggung-lightning-usgs.jpg\" alt=\"Volcanic lightning can melt ash into tiny spheres of glass\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Volcanic lightning lashes the eruption cloud over Galunggung, in Indonesia, in this 1984 photo. This discharge of energy creates abundant tiny spheres of melted rock that mix with the ash as it settles earthward and enters the geologic cycle. \u003ccite>(U.S. Geological Survey)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/03/09/ancient-sinkhole-could-presage-mega-tsunami-for-hawaii/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hawaii is the state\u003c/a>, and the Makauwahi sinkhole in Kauai has the evidence.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/05/01/fish-help-build-coral-reef-islands/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The parrotfish manufacture sand for the Maldives islands\u003c/a> by crunching on large corals and pooping out the grit.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/09/28/reports-nasa-to-announce-water-flows-on-mars-watch-live/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NASA scientists announced\u003c/a> they had “the strongest evidence yet that liquid water flows intermittently on present-day Mars.”\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/11/19/co2-earth-passes-into-uncharted-territory/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In mid-November the CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> level\u003c/a> at the standard observatory in Hawaii exceeded 400 parts per million, for good.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/11/05/whats-left-to-discover-about-microbes-pretty-much-everything/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">These worlds of microbes\u003c/a>, found in soils, our skins and our digestive tracts, are called microbiomes.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/04/03/nasas-messenger-spacecraft-preparing-its-farewell-message-from-mercury/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The planet was Mercury\u003c/a>, the one nearest to the Sun.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/11/27/ice-volcanoes-on-pluto-whats-next/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">New Horizons found volcanoes of ice water\u003c/a> and glaciers of solid nitrogen on the dwarf planet Pluto.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_281380\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-281380\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-800x800.jpg\" alt=\"New Horizons' high-resolution color-enhanced portrait of Pluto exaggerated colors showing variations in surface composition and terrain.\" width=\"800\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-800x800.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-400x400.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-960x960.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-32x32.jpg 32w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-64x64.jpg 64w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-96x96.jpg 96w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-128x128.jpg 128w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-75x75.jpg 75w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">New Horizons’ high-resolution color-enhanced portrait of Pluto, exaggerated colors showing variations in surface composition and terrain. \u003ccite>(NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/09/11/mass-extinctions-the-case-of-the-vanishing-ediacarans/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Unlike other mass extinctions\u003c/a>, which had catastrophic causes, the Ediacaran mass extinction is the first example ever found of “biotic replacement,” the mechanism proposed in 1859 by Charles Darwin.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/12/17/november-was-record-warm-month-for-globe-extending-streak/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In 2015, November was the seventh month in a row\u003c/a> that was the warmest on record.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/07/16/geologic-highlights-of-californias-new-national-monument/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The new park, in the heart of the Coast Range\u003c/a>, is Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument, although lots of California parklands feature this kind of geology.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/06/11/burn-after-reading-big-el-nino-building-could-be-major-rainmaker-this-fall/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">It’s true; El Niño is a tropical weather pattern\u003c/a> that was strong back in June, in the tropics, but it’s barely starting to affect California now in late December.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/07/09/wendys-ceratops-a-new-face-in-the-dinosaur-line/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>, an early relative of \u003ci>Triceratops\u003c/i>\u003c/a>, was named in honor of amateur fossil hunter Wendy Sloboda and the Pinhorn Provincial Grazing Reserve, where its bones were dug up.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/03/19/after-an-earthquake-use-your-phone-camera-for-science/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The surprisingly effective image-stitching technique\u003c/a>, stereoscopic viewing on steroids, is called “Structure from Motion,” or SfM.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28390\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/03/vofstereo.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-28390\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-28390\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/03/vofstereo.jpg\" alt=\"Stereo image from Valley of Fire, Nevada\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Stereo image of a scene from Nevada’s Valley of Fire State Park. To view it, carefully cross your eyes until the two images fuse in a 3D picture. \u003ccite>(Andrew Alden/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/08/14/its-official-dont-blame-the-sun-for-climate-change/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The historical record of solar activity\u003c/a> is based on a quantity called the sunspot number.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/05/28/two-faults-could-make-one-big-earthquake/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Hayward fault could form a megafault with its southern neighbor\u003c/a> that runs from San Jose past Gilroy — the Calaveras fault.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/06/25/active-volcanoes-spotted-on-venus/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The evidence of fresh pools of red-hot lava\u003c/a> was seen through the thick atmosphere of Venus.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/04/23/stegosaurus-male-or-female-the-answer-is-in-the-plates/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stegosaurs appear to have had differently shaped spinal plates\u003c/a> in males and females.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/news/2015/03/10/new-earthquake-forecast-less-frequent-moderate-quakes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Hayward fault is given one-in-seven odds\u003c/a> of a massive rupture between now and 2045.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ol>\n\u003c/ol>\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Test your knowledge of planets, earthquakes, fossils and more in this year's big Earth science news.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704930883,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":4,"wordCount":1195},"headData":{"title":"Earth in the Year 2015: Can You Ace the KQED Science Quiz? | KQED","description":"Test your knowledge of planets, earthquakes, fossils and more in this year's big Earth science news.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Earth in the Year 2015: Can You Ace the KQED Science Quiz?","datePublished":"2015-12-24T14:00:44.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-10T23:54:43.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/430896/earth-in-the-year-2015-can-you-ace-the-kqed-science-quiz","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>From planetology to paleontology, 2015 was full of news in the Earth sciences. Ace this 20-question quiz and you’ll have plenty of planetary tidbits from KQED Science to quick-turn an awkward conversation at your holiday table. Who doesn’t need that?\u003c/p>\n\u003col>\n\u003cli>It’s the ultimate selfie: NASA launched this satellite that hovers between Earth and the Sun, taking snapshots of the whole planet about 15 times a day. Do you know its name?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Scientists reported that the ash from some volcanoes contains abundant spherules — glassy droplets as fine as powder — that don’t arise from the splashing and explosions of lava. What makes them instead?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Sediments in the bottom of a rare sinkhole show that a very large tsunami, triggered by a magnitude-9 quake in Alaska, struck this state about 500 years ago. What state is that?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A study showed that the coral-sand islands of the Maldives are maintained by the activity of parrotfish. What do the fish do?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Researchers found that parts of Mars contain hydrated minerals, as well as dark streaks in the ground that appear during the Martian summer. What did they conclude?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Last month, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rose above a round number and will not go back below it in the foreseeable future. What is that number?\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29853\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29853\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/Daisy-parrotfish-wikimedia.jpg\" alt=\"Daisy Parrotfish in the Maldives\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Species like the daisy parrotfish \u003ci>Chlorurus sordidus\u003c/i>, are a crucial link in the natural chain that builds dry land in the Maldives archipelago. \u003ccite>(Julien Bidet/Wikimedia)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>Two groups of scientists called for research programs to study the invisible ecosystems of microscopic organisms found everywhere we look. What’s the name for those ecosystems?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Early this year a spacecraft named MESSENGER ended several years of planetary observations by crashing into its target. What is that planet?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft sent back images of high mountain ranges, plus what look like volcanoes and glaciers, on a place it took more than 9 years to reach. What is that distant world?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A fossil study proposed that the ancient soft-bodied creatures called Ediacarans went extinct when newly evolved animals ruined their habitat. What scientist first proposed this kind of extinction?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>In December, NOAA reported that the previous month was the warmest November ever recorded. How many record-breaking months in a row did that make?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A new National Monument was established in northern California that displays signs of dramatic geologic activity including the clash of tectonic plates, volcanic eruptions and the wrenching of modern earthquake faults. Do you know its name?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>True or false? A strong El Niño has been active since early summer.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104383\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104383\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg\" alt=\"Head of Wendiceratops\" width=\"800\" height=\"656\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-400x328.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-960x787.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>, as reconstructed by scientific illustrator \u003ca href=\"http://www.ddufault.com/paleo.html\">Danielle Dufault\u003c/a> for the Royal Ontario Museum \u003ccite>(Danielle Dufault/PLOS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>Fossils of a three-horned dinosaur with a flamboyant bony frill behind its head were found in a Canadian park and assigned the name \u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>. Why that name?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>After an earthquake rips the ground, you can walk around the fresh geological evidence taking snapshots, and scientists can turn those images into an accurate 3D model. What’s the name of that technique?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>A widely used record of the Sun’s historical activity was revised, erasing an apparent increase in solar energy that some researchers used to argue against greenhouse warming. What is that record?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Researchers showed that the Hayward fault is closely connected to a neighboring fault, making it more likely than previously thought that both can rupture together in an earthquake the size of 1906’s Big One. What’s the second fault?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Clever observations by a spacecraft peeking through dense clouds yielded conclusive evidence of volcanoes caught in the act of erupting. What planet was this?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>After 100 years of guessing, a fossil study of stegosaurs — those big dinosaurs with the rows of bony plates down their backs — found a way to tell the males and females apart. What is it?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>The U.S. Geological Survey updated its long-term earthquake forecast this year. Which Bay Area earthquake fault is considered most likely to cause a major quake over the next few decades?\u003c/li>\n\u003cp>\u003cb>Here are the answers, each linked to its KQED Science story.\u003c/b>\u003c/p>\n\u003col>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/news/2015/10/20/nasas-new-snapshots-of-earth-from-a-satellite-far-far-away\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The “selfie satellite” is DSCOVR\u003c/a>, or Deep Space Climate Observatory.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/03/05/volcanoes-and-lightning-make-tiny-glass-balls-together/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The new variety of spherule is made\u003c/a> when lightning lashes the ash-filled clouds above erupting volcanoes.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_27883\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-27883\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/03/galunggung-lightning-usgs.jpg\" alt=\"Volcanic lightning can melt ash into tiny spheres of glass\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Volcanic lightning lashes the eruption cloud over Galunggung, in Indonesia, in this 1984 photo. This discharge of energy creates abundant tiny spheres of melted rock that mix with the ash as it settles earthward and enters the geologic cycle. \u003ccite>(U.S. Geological Survey)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/03/09/ancient-sinkhole-could-presage-mega-tsunami-for-hawaii/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hawaii is the state\u003c/a>, and the Makauwahi sinkhole in Kauai has the evidence.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/05/01/fish-help-build-coral-reef-islands/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The parrotfish manufacture sand for the Maldives islands\u003c/a> by crunching on large corals and pooping out the grit.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/09/28/reports-nasa-to-announce-water-flows-on-mars-watch-live/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NASA scientists announced\u003c/a> they had “the strongest evidence yet that liquid water flows intermittently on present-day Mars.”\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/11/19/co2-earth-passes-into-uncharted-territory/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In mid-November the CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> level\u003c/a> at the standard observatory in Hawaii exceeded 400 parts per million, for good.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/11/05/whats-left-to-discover-about-microbes-pretty-much-everything/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">These worlds of microbes\u003c/a>, found in soils, our skins and our digestive tracts, are called microbiomes.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/04/03/nasas-messenger-spacecraft-preparing-its-farewell-message-from-mercury/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The planet was Mercury\u003c/a>, the one nearest to the Sun.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/11/27/ice-volcanoes-on-pluto-whats-next/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">New Horizons found volcanoes of ice water\u003c/a> and glaciers of solid nitrogen on the dwarf planet Pluto.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_281380\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-281380\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-800x800.jpg\" alt=\"New Horizons' high-resolution color-enhanced portrait of Pluto exaggerated colors showing variations in surface composition and terrain.\" width=\"800\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-800x800.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-400x400.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-960x960.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-32x32.jpg 32w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-64x64.jpg 64w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-96x96.jpg 96w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-128x128.jpg 128w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release-75x75.jpg 75w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/P_COLOR2_enhanced_release.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">New Horizons’ high-resolution color-enhanced portrait of Pluto, exaggerated colors showing variations in surface composition and terrain. \u003ccite>(NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/09/11/mass-extinctions-the-case-of-the-vanishing-ediacarans/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Unlike other mass extinctions\u003c/a>, which had catastrophic causes, the Ediacaran mass extinction is the first example ever found of “biotic replacement,” the mechanism proposed in 1859 by Charles Darwin.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/12/17/november-was-record-warm-month-for-globe-extending-streak/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In 2015, November was the seventh month in a row\u003c/a> that was the warmest on record.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/07/16/geologic-highlights-of-californias-new-national-monument/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The new park, in the heart of the Coast Range\u003c/a>, is Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument, although lots of California parklands feature this kind of geology.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/06/11/burn-after-reading-big-el-nino-building-could-be-major-rainmaker-this-fall/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">It’s true; El Niño is a tropical weather pattern\u003c/a> that was strong back in June, in the tropics, but it’s barely starting to affect California now in late December.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/07/09/wendys-ceratops-a-new-face-in-the-dinosaur-line/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>, an early relative of \u003ci>Triceratops\u003c/i>\u003c/a>, was named in honor of amateur fossil hunter Wendy Sloboda and the Pinhorn Provincial Grazing Reserve, where its bones were dug up.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/03/19/after-an-earthquake-use-your-phone-camera-for-science/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The surprisingly effective image-stitching technique\u003c/a>, stereoscopic viewing on steroids, is called “Structure from Motion,” or SfM.\u003c/li>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28390\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/03/vofstereo.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-28390\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-28390\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/03/vofstereo.jpg\" alt=\"Stereo image from Valley of Fire, Nevada\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Stereo image of a scene from Nevada’s Valley of Fire State Park. To view it, carefully cross your eyes until the two images fuse in a 3D picture. \u003ccite>(Andrew Alden/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/08/14/its-official-dont-blame-the-sun-for-climate-change/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The historical record of solar activity\u003c/a> is based on a quantity called the sunspot number.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/05/28/two-faults-could-make-one-big-earthquake/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Hayward fault could form a megafault with its southern neighbor\u003c/a> that runs from San Jose past Gilroy — the Calaveras fault.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/06/25/active-volcanoes-spotted-on-venus/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The evidence of fresh pools of red-hot lava\u003c/a> was seen through the thick atmosphere of Venus.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/04/23/stegosaurus-male-or-female-the-answer-is-in-the-plates/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stegosaurs appear to have had differently shaped spinal plates\u003c/a> in males and females.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/news/2015/03/10/new-earthquake-forecast-less-frequent-moderate-quakes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Hayward fault is given one-in-seven odds\u003c/a> of a massive rupture between now and 2045.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ol>\n\u003c/ol>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/430896/earth-in-the-year-2015-can-you-ace-the-kqed-science-quiz","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_28","science_31","science_38","science_40"],"tags":["science_427","science_349","science_218","science_5191"],"featImg":"science_430986","label":"science"},"science_271875":{"type":"posts","id":"science_271875","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"271875","score":null,"sort":[1443531630000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"from-fish-skin-to-our-teeth-tracing-the-origin-of-enamel","title":"From Fish Skin to Our Teeth: Tracing the Origin of Enamel","publishDate":1443531630,"format":"standard","headTitle":"From Fish Skin to Our Teeth: Tracing the Origin of Enamel | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cp>We all stare at our teeth in the mirror, but when biologists brush their teeth they wonder how these unusual parts of our skeletons evolved. Now, a study combining the anatomy of fossils and the genomes of modern species argues that teeth have their roots in the skins of ancient fish.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">New study argues that teeth have their roots in the skins of ancient fish.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature15259.html\">A new paper\u003c/a> published this week in the journal \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/current_issue.html\">Nature\u003c/a> may provide an answer. Researchers at Sweden’s Uppsala University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing searched for clues in fossils of an ancient line of fish that were the ancestors of the tetrapods, and in the genomes of those species’ closest living relatives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fish have these mineralized tissues, too, but some have them in two places — in their teeth and in spines on their skin, known as denticles. These account for the texture of shark skin, rough when stroked in one direction and smooth in the other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Between teeth and denticles, enamel presents a confusing set of clues. Modern bony fishes have teeth but no denticles, and their teeth are capped with a substance called acrodin instead of enamel. \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrichthyes\">Sharks and rays\u003c/a>, the oldest major class of living fishes, have both teeth and denticles, but they’re capped with a substance called enameloid instead of enamel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_271878\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-271878\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-800x450.png\" alt=\"Shark denticles\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-800x450.png 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-400x225.png 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-1180x664.png 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-960x540.png 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales.png 1258w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Electron micrograph showing denticles on the skin of a lemon shark. They contain enameloid, a mineralized tissue that evolved independently of enamel. \u003ccite>(Pascal Deynat/Wikimedia)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Things get interesting in the handful of species between these two groups. The \u003ca href=\"http://vertebrates.si.edu/fishes/coelacanth/coelacanth_wider.html\">coelacanths\u003c/a>, an ancient line of lobe-finned fishes related to the tetrapods, have true enamel everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper’s authors zeroed in on a primitive bony fish called the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar\">gar\u003c/a>. Unlike other bony fish or sharks, its denticles contain an enamel-like substance called ganoin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The gar’s genome, which was sequenced earlier this year, contains several of the key genes responsible for building enamel. Moreover, these genes are expressed in the skin, so the authors conclude that ganoin and enamel are the same stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sharks have no such enamel-making genes, and neither do modern bony fishes. The gene evidence suggests that somewhere between the rise of sharks and the modern bony fishes, fish must have evolved and then lost the ability to make enamel while the tetrapods and coelacanths and gars retained it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next, the researchers checked that hypothesis against the fossil record. To trace the stages in enamel evolution, they inspected fossils of three species of ancestral bony fish dating from late in the Silurian Period (about 425 million years ago).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Lophosteus\u003c/i>, a species found in Swedish rocks, had no enamel at all. \u003ci>Andreolepis,\u003c/i> also from Sweden, had enamel only on the denticles behind its head, not on its teeth or head denticles. And \u003ci>Psarolepis\u003c/i>, from China, had enamel everywhere \u003ci>but\u003c/i> its teeth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_271877\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 782px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-271877\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution.png\" alt=\"Evolution of enamel\" width=\"782\" height=\"441\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution.png 782w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution-400x226.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 782px) 100vw, 782px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scenario for the evolution of enamel. Sharks and rays (chondrichthyans) diverged from the evolutionary line before enamel appeared, and tetrapods and modern fish (teleosts) diverged afterward. \u003ccite>(Tatjana Haitina/Nature)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The authors conclude that the first true enamel evolved in the skin before it spread to the head and then to the mouth. As the tetrapods evolved, climbing onto the land, they kept those enamel teeth and lost their denticles. The bony fishes lost their enamel, evolving newer tooth materials, and kept their denticles.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What are denticles for? Current thinking is that they serve to streamline the skin, helping fish cut through the water. Some modern fish use them as defensive weapons, analogous to the quills of a porcupine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But once teeth arose in the earliest fish, the skin and the teeth must have gone separate evolutionary ways. The paper’s authors suggest that humans, like other tetrapods, have lost all ability to grow sharklike spines from our skins, but traces of that history may be found in our genes.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Enamel probably first evolved on the skins of ancient fish before it moved to teeth -- and stayed there.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704931259,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":658},"headData":{"title":"From Fish Skin to Our Teeth: Tracing the Origin of Enamel | KQED","description":"Enamel probably first evolved on the skins of ancient fish before it moved to teeth -- and stayed there.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"From Fish Skin to Our Teeth: Tracing the Origin of Enamel","datePublished":"2015-09-29T13:00:30.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-11T00:00:59.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/271875/from-fish-skin-to-our-teeth-tracing-the-origin-of-enamel","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>We all stare at our teeth in the mirror, but when biologists brush their teeth they wonder how these unusual parts of our skeletons evolved. Now, a study combining the anatomy of fossils and the genomes of modern species argues that teeth have their roots in the skins of ancient fish.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">New study argues that teeth have their roots in the skins of ancient fish.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature15259.html\">A new paper\u003c/a> published this week in the journal \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/current_issue.html\">Nature\u003c/a> may provide an answer. Researchers at Sweden’s Uppsala University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing searched for clues in fossils of an ancient line of fish that were the ancestors of the tetrapods, and in the genomes of those species’ closest living relatives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fish have these mineralized tissues, too, but some have them in two places — in their teeth and in spines on their skin, known as denticles. These account for the texture of shark skin, rough when stroked in one direction and smooth in the other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Between teeth and denticles, enamel presents a confusing set of clues. Modern bony fishes have teeth but no denticles, and their teeth are capped with a substance called acrodin instead of enamel. \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrichthyes\">Sharks and rays\u003c/a>, the oldest major class of living fishes, have both teeth and denticles, but they’re capped with a substance called enameloid instead of enamel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_271878\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-271878\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-800x450.png\" alt=\"Shark denticles\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-800x450.png 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-400x225.png 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-1180x664.png 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales-960x540.png 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/sharkscales.png 1258w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Electron micrograph showing denticles on the skin of a lemon shark. They contain enameloid, a mineralized tissue that evolved independently of enamel. \u003ccite>(Pascal Deynat/Wikimedia)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Things get interesting in the handful of species between these two groups. The \u003ca href=\"http://vertebrates.si.edu/fishes/coelacanth/coelacanth_wider.html\">coelacanths\u003c/a>, an ancient line of lobe-finned fishes related to the tetrapods, have true enamel everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper’s authors zeroed in on a primitive bony fish called the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar\">gar\u003c/a>. Unlike other bony fish or sharks, its denticles contain an enamel-like substance called ganoin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The gar’s genome, which was sequenced earlier this year, contains several of the key genes responsible for building enamel. Moreover, these genes are expressed in the skin, so the authors conclude that ganoin and enamel are the same stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sharks have no such enamel-making genes, and neither do modern bony fishes. The gene evidence suggests that somewhere between the rise of sharks and the modern bony fishes, fish must have evolved and then lost the ability to make enamel while the tetrapods and coelacanths and gars retained it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next, the researchers checked that hypothesis against the fossil record. To trace the stages in enamel evolution, they inspected fossils of three species of ancestral bony fish dating from late in the Silurian Period (about 425 million years ago).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Lophosteus\u003c/i>, a species found in Swedish rocks, had no enamel at all. \u003ci>Andreolepis,\u003c/i> also from Sweden, had enamel only on the denticles behind its head, not on its teeth or head denticles. And \u003ci>Psarolepis\u003c/i>, from China, had enamel everywhere \u003ci>but\u003c/i> its teeth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_271877\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 782px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-271877\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution.png\" alt=\"Evolution of enamel\" width=\"782\" height=\"441\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution.png 782w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/enamel-evolution-400x226.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 782px) 100vw, 782px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scenario for the evolution of enamel. Sharks and rays (chondrichthyans) diverged from the evolutionary line before enamel appeared, and tetrapods and modern fish (teleosts) diverged afterward. \u003ccite>(Tatjana Haitina/Nature)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The authors conclude that the first true enamel evolved in the skin before it spread to the head and then to the mouth. As the tetrapods evolved, climbing onto the land, they kept those enamel teeth and lost their denticles. The bony fishes lost their enamel, evolving newer tooth materials, and kept their denticles.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What are denticles for? Current thinking is that they serve to streamline the skin, helping fish cut through the water. Some modern fish use them as defensive weapons, analogous to the quills of a porcupine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But once teeth arose in the earliest fish, the skin and the teeth must have gone separate evolutionary ways. The paper’s authors suggest that humans, like other tetrapods, have lost all ability to grow sharklike spines from our skins, but traces of that history may be found in our genes.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/271875/from-fish-skin-to-our-teeth-tracing-the-origin-of-enamel","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_30","science_38"],"tags":["science_116","science_248","science_349","science_2606"],"featImg":"science_271961","label":"science"},"science_244968":{"type":"posts","id":"science_244968","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"244968","score":null,"sort":[1441995494000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"mass-extinctions-the-case-of-the-vanishing-ediacarans","title":"Mass Extinctions: The Case of the Vanishing Ediacarans","publishDate":1441995494,"format":"standard","headTitle":"Mass Extinctions: The Case of the Vanishing Ediacarans | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cp>Unlike the Earth’s “Big Five” great mass extinctions, scientists now think \u003ca href=\"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/282/1814/20151003\">the first mass extinction\u003c/a>, during the Ediacaran Period, may be like the “Sixth Extinction” happening today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Evolution was the culprit of the first extinction, they conclude. The earlier seafloor creatures disappeared because new neighbors moved in and ruined their habitat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many mass extinctions, including all of the Big Five, are generally blamed on global catastrophes of one sort or another: great volcanic eruptions, oceanic stagnations or cosmic impacts. In those cases \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/04/16/fossil-study-detects-another-mass-extinction-in-the-deep-past/\">we have physical evidence of those causes\u003c/a> besides the fossils themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But many others are simply mysterious. Fossil records only show that one set of organisms suddenly gave way to a new and different set. And for the first mass extinction, about 542 million years ago at the beginning of the Cambrian Period, fossils are all we have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The earliest fossils representing most modern animal groups — mollusks, arthropods, jellyfish and so on — appear in rocks from near the beginning of the Cambrian Period. For many years researchers knew of no older fossils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But within the last few decades they’ve discovered rare fossils of strange, soft-bodied organisms known as the Ediacaran (rhymes with “saccharine”) biota. The arrival of Cambrian species must have meant a wave of death for the Ediacarans, which left no descendants as far as we can tell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We don’t know whether the Ediacaran creatures were animals, plants, giant one-celled organisms, something like fungi or entirely different forms of life that no longer exist on Earth. They seem to have been soft things that waved fronds in the water or sat on the seafloor, absorbing nutrients passively. Still, they were the earliest complex, multicelled living things we know of.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_244970\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-244970\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt.jpg\" alt=\"Swartpuntia\" width=\"600\" height=\"621\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt.jpg 600w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt-400x414.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt-32x32.jpg 32w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fossil of the Ediacaran creature \u003ci>Swartpuntia\u003c/i>, from southern Namibia. It stood upright and consisted of a central stalk with several fins. \u003ccite>(Sarah Tweedt/Smithsonian Institution)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The case of the vanishing Ediacarans has inspired a range of extinction hypotheses. One tempting explanation, called “biotic replacement,” is straight out of Darwin: the new organisms just out-competed the old ones, like gladiators over lions, in the evolutionary struggle for existence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s tempting because the early Cambrian species were equipped with hard parts — shells outside or skeletons inside — that surely gave them advantages over the wispy Ediacarans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But nailing down the Darwinian case, for this or any other mass extinction, has been hard because the evidence is so slim. That’s where the \u003ca href=\"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/282/1814/20151003\">new paper\u003c/a>, in the journal \u003ca href=\"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/\">Proceedings of the Royal Society B\u003c/a>, advances the conversation. A U.S.-Canadian team of 11 authors led by Simon Darroch, of Vanderbilt University, intensively studied fossil beds in southern Namibia that date from the last million years or so of the Ediacaran Period.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Darroch’s team set out to compare the fossil community at the Namibian locality to those at other, older Ediacaran sites. They found the diversity of species was significantly higher at older deposits in Russia, Newfoundland and Australia, which suggested that Ediacaran species were gradually losing ground in the days before their extinction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They analyzed the sediments preserved along with the fossils and found nothing chemically or physically hostile to life, just signs of a quiet, shallow seafloor with a steady supply of oxygen. There was nothing that would have dissolved fossils away. They searched a large area for fossils and were confident that few if any species remained undiscovered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_244971\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 650px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-244971\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia.jpg\" alt=\"Darroch in Namibia\" width=\"650\" height=\"433\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia.jpg 650w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia-400x266.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 650px) 100vw, 650px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Simon Darroch collecting Ediacaran fossils at Swartpunt Farm in Namibia. \u003ccite>(Sarah Tweedt/Smithsonian Institution)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But the rocks also have evidence that new species of animals with hard shells, the so-called small shelly fauna that dominated the earliest Cambrian seas, were digging up the seafloor — something Ediacarans could not do. The new species were making burrows and living in them, for the first time in Earth’s history. Darroch refers to them as “ecosystem engineers.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Darroch suggests that the Ediacarans “were slowly marginalized by newly evolving members of the Cambrian evolutionary fauna, which would have competed for resources,” mixing up the seafloor sediment and disturbing the Ediacaran lifestyle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Darroch concludes in the paper that “the first mass extinction of complex life may have been largely biologically mediated — ultimately caused by a combination of evolutionary innovation, ecosystem engineering and biological interactions — making this event unique” compared to the “Big Five.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But maybe it’s not unique, just the first example. One could argue the wave of extinctions going on today is caused by the same threefold combination, with the Anthropocene naked ape in the role of the Cambrian small shelly fauna. The evolutionary innovation stems from our large brains and opposable thumbs. The ecosystem engineering is everything we do from building dams to planting crops. And the biological interactions we have with other species are conflicts that we usually win.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The earliest great extinction event appears, uniquely, to be caused by evolution rather than catastrophe.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704931323,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":18,"wordCount":829},"headData":{"title":"Mass Extinctions: The Case of the Vanishing Ediacarans | KQED","description":"The earliest great extinction event appears, uniquely, to be caused by evolution rather than catastrophe.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Mass Extinctions: The Case of the Vanishing Ediacarans","datePublished":"2015-09-11T18:18:14.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-11T00:02:03.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/244968/mass-extinctions-the-case-of-the-vanishing-ediacarans","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Unlike the Earth’s “Big Five” great mass extinctions, scientists now think \u003ca href=\"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/282/1814/20151003\">the first mass extinction\u003c/a>, during the Ediacaran Period, may be like the “Sixth Extinction” happening today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Evolution was the culprit of the first extinction, they conclude. The earlier seafloor creatures disappeared because new neighbors moved in and ruined their habitat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many mass extinctions, including all of the Big Five, are generally blamed on global catastrophes of one sort or another: great volcanic eruptions, oceanic stagnations or cosmic impacts. In those cases \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2015/04/16/fossil-study-detects-another-mass-extinction-in-the-deep-past/\">we have physical evidence of those causes\u003c/a> besides the fossils themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But many others are simply mysterious. Fossil records only show that one set of organisms suddenly gave way to a new and different set. And for the first mass extinction, about 542 million years ago at the beginning of the Cambrian Period, fossils are all we have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The earliest fossils representing most modern animal groups — mollusks, arthropods, jellyfish and so on — appear in rocks from near the beginning of the Cambrian Period. For many years researchers knew of no older fossils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But within the last few decades they’ve discovered rare fossils of strange, soft-bodied organisms known as the Ediacaran (rhymes with “saccharine”) biota. The arrival of Cambrian species must have meant a wave of death for the Ediacarans, which left no descendants as far as we can tell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We don’t know whether the Ediacaran creatures were animals, plants, giant one-celled organisms, something like fungi or entirely different forms of life that no longer exist on Earth. They seem to have been soft things that waved fronds in the water or sat on the seafloor, absorbing nutrients passively. Still, they were the earliest complex, multicelled living things we know of.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_244970\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-244970\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt.jpg\" alt=\"Swartpuntia\" width=\"600\" height=\"621\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt.jpg 600w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt-400x414.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Ediac-Tweedt-32x32.jpg 32w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fossil of the Ediacaran creature \u003ci>Swartpuntia\u003c/i>, from southern Namibia. It stood upright and consisted of a central stalk with several fins. \u003ccite>(Sarah Tweedt/Smithsonian Institution)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The case of the vanishing Ediacarans has inspired a range of extinction hypotheses. One tempting explanation, called “biotic replacement,” is straight out of Darwin: the new organisms just out-competed the old ones, like gladiators over lions, in the evolutionary struggle for existence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s tempting because the early Cambrian species were equipped with hard parts — shells outside or skeletons inside — that surely gave them advantages over the wispy Ediacarans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But nailing down the Darwinian case, for this or any other mass extinction, has been hard because the evidence is so slim. That’s where the \u003ca href=\"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/282/1814/20151003\">new paper\u003c/a>, in the journal \u003ca href=\"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/\">Proceedings of the Royal Society B\u003c/a>, advances the conversation. A U.S.-Canadian team of 11 authors led by Simon Darroch, of Vanderbilt University, intensively studied fossil beds in southern Namibia that date from the last million years or so of the Ediacaran Period.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Darroch’s team set out to compare the fossil community at the Namibian locality to those at other, older Ediacaran sites. They found the diversity of species was significantly higher at older deposits in Russia, Newfoundland and Australia, which suggested that Ediacaran species were gradually losing ground in the days before their extinction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They analyzed the sediments preserved along with the fossils and found nothing chemically or physically hostile to life, just signs of a quiet, shallow seafloor with a steady supply of oxygen. There was nothing that would have dissolved fossils away. They searched a large area for fossils and were confident that few if any species remained undiscovered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_244971\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 650px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-244971\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia.jpg\" alt=\"Darroch in Namibia\" width=\"650\" height=\"433\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia.jpg 650w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/09/Darroch-Namibia-400x266.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 650px) 100vw, 650px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Simon Darroch collecting Ediacaran fossils at Swartpunt Farm in Namibia. \u003ccite>(Sarah Tweedt/Smithsonian Institution)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But the rocks also have evidence that new species of animals with hard shells, the so-called small shelly fauna that dominated the earliest Cambrian seas, were digging up the seafloor — something Ediacarans could not do. The new species were making burrows and living in them, for the first time in Earth’s history. Darroch refers to them as “ecosystem engineers.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Darroch suggests that the Ediacarans “were slowly marginalized by newly evolving members of the Cambrian evolutionary fauna, which would have competed for resources,” mixing up the seafloor sediment and disturbing the Ediacaran lifestyle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Darroch concludes in the paper that “the first mass extinction of complex life may have been largely biologically mediated — ultimately caused by a combination of evolutionary innovation, ecosystem engineering and biological interactions — making this event unique” compared to the “Big Five.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But maybe it’s not unique, just the first example. One could argue the wave of extinctions going on today is caused by the same threefold combination, with the Anthropocene naked ape in the role of the Cambrian small shelly fauna. The evolutionary innovation stems from our large brains and opposable thumbs. The ecosystem engineering is everything we do from building dams to planting crops. And the biological interactions we have with other species are conflicts that we usually win.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/244968/mass-extinctions-the-case-of-the-vanishing-ediacarans","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_116","science_349"],"featImg":"science_244969","label":"science"},"science_104381":{"type":"posts","id":"science_104381","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"104381","score":null,"sort":[1436467331000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"wendys-ceratops-a-new-face-in-the-dinosaur-line","title":"Wendy's Ceratops, a New Face in the Dinosaur Line","publishDate":1436467331,"format":"standard","headTitle":"Wendy’s Ceratops, a New Face in the Dinosaur Line | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cp>Fossils of an early relative of \u003ci>Triceratops\u003c/i>, part of the horn-headed ceratopsid group of dinosaurs, have been recovered from the rocks of southern Canada. The find helps fill a gap in the evolution of these iconic, long-extinct creatures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Triceratops\u003c/i> and its relatives were four-legged animals that had distinctive horns on their faces (\u003ci>ceratops\u003c/i> is scientific Greek for “horn-face”) and large bony frills behind their heads. They appear to have eaten brushy plants and lived in herds, making them the elephants, rhinos and zebras of their day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The newest member of the ceratopsid group was given the name \u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i> by its discoverers, \u003ca href=\"https://evanslab.wordpress.com/people/\">David Evans\u003c/a> of the Royal Ontario Museum and \u003ca href=\"http://www.phaetongroup.com/ryan.php\">Michael Ryan\u003c/a> of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. “Wendiceratops” honors fossil-hunter Wendy Sloboda and “pinhornensis” refers to the Pinhorn Provincial Grazing Reserve in southern Alberta, where more than 200 its bones were dug up. Evans and Ryan painstakingly describe the bison-sized dinosaur in a \u003ca href=\"http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130007\">paper\u003c/a> in the open-access journal \u003ca href=\"https://www.plos.org/\">PLOS ONE\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The newly described species had an unusually flamboyant head for its time. It’s significant because at 79 million years of age it represents the beginning of an explosion in diversity among the ceratopsids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104383\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104383\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg\" alt=\"Head of Wendiceratops\" width=\"800\" height=\"656\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-400x328.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-960x787.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>, as reconstructed by scientific illustrator \u003ca href=\"http://www.ddufault.com/paleo.html\">Danielle Dufault\u003c/a> for the Royal Ontario Museum (Dufault/PLOS) \u003ccite>(Danielle Dufault/PLOS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Ceratopsids are part of a much larger group of dinosaurs called the ceratopsians, which originated about 160 million years ago. The oldest ceratopsids have been found only in China in rocks about 90 million years old. After a gap of 10 million years, ceratopsids appeared in North America, where they thrived for the rest of the Cretaceous Period, from about 80 to 66 million years ago. They finally went extinct in the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2014/12/18/dinosaur-extinction-new-research-favors-volcanism-as-cause/\">catastrophic events that ended the Cretaceous\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> fossils came from a “bonebed” that contained remains of at least four individuals. More than 200 fossils were retrieved from a space the size of a living room, excavated between 2011 and 2014. This is an unusually good record for an early American ceratopsid species, most of which are known from just a few fossil fragments. The collection has examples of most of the important bones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104384\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104384\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry-800x584.jpg\" alt=\"Wendiceratops quarry\" width=\"800\" height=\"584\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry-400x292.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> quarry in southern Alberta. The diggers are standing at the level of the bonebed. Rock exposures like these have yielded thousands of dinosaur fossils in the U.S. and Canada. The Bay Area at this time was \u003ca href=\"https://oaklandgeology.wordpress.com/2015/06/29/shepherd-canyon-type-localities-of-oakland-rocks/\">deep underwater\u003c/a>. (Evans)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The most distinctive part of \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> is its frill. The flaring top of the frill, or parietal bone, has several gently pointed spikes that flop forward like bangs. And the knobs along the sides and base of the frill lie in a line as even and consistent as a movie star’s teeth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104385\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104385\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-800x527.png\" alt=\"Frill bones of ceratopsids\" width=\"800\" height=\"527\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-800x527.png 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-400x263.png 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-960x632.png 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill.png 1008w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The frill bones of \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i>, at center, consist of the central parietal bone and the two squamous bones below. Surrounding it are parietals of other ceratopsids: (left to right) \u003ci>Xenoceratops\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Centrosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Styracosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Achelosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Albertaceratops\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Pachyrhinosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Einiosaurus\u003c/i> and \u003ci>Diabloceratops\u003c/i>. (Evans/PLOS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another feature of professional interest to Evans and Ryan is the nose horn, represented in the fossils by its bony core. (Until more fossils are found, we can only guess at the horn’s actual shape.) Their analysis shows that nose horns probably evolved at least two separate times in this line of dinosaurs. As in other cases of convergent evolution, the horns originated in different ways, but ended up looking the same.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Evans and Ryan note that \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> shared the Cretaceous plains with several other ceratopsid species, such as \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertaceratops\">\u003ci>Albertaceratops\u003c/i>\u003c/a>. This fits with the idea that the famous ornamented frills of the ceratopsids served to tell apart the different species, although they also may have helped the animals regulate their body temperature.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"An intriguing, attractive early member of the Triceratops tribe is newly described from Canadian rocks.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704931583,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":639},"headData":{"title":"Wendy's Ceratops, a New Face in the Dinosaur Line | KQED","description":"An intriguing, attractive early member of the Triceratops tribe is newly described from Canadian rocks.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Wendy's Ceratops, a New Face in the Dinosaur Line","datePublished":"2015-07-09T18:42:11.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-11T00:06:23.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/104381/wendys-ceratops-a-new-face-in-the-dinosaur-line","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Fossils of an early relative of \u003ci>Triceratops\u003c/i>, part of the horn-headed ceratopsid group of dinosaurs, have been recovered from the rocks of southern Canada. The find helps fill a gap in the evolution of these iconic, long-extinct creatures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Triceratops\u003c/i> and its relatives were four-legged animals that had distinctive horns on their faces (\u003ci>ceratops\u003c/i> is scientific Greek for “horn-face”) and large bony frills behind their heads. They appear to have eaten brushy plants and lived in herds, making them the elephants, rhinos and zebras of their day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The newest member of the ceratopsid group was given the name \u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i> by its discoverers, \u003ca href=\"https://evanslab.wordpress.com/people/\">David Evans\u003c/a> of the Royal Ontario Museum and \u003ca href=\"http://www.phaetongroup.com/ryan.php\">Michael Ryan\u003c/a> of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. “Wendiceratops” honors fossil-hunter Wendy Sloboda and “pinhornensis” refers to the Pinhorn Provincial Grazing Reserve in southern Alberta, where more than 200 its bones were dug up. Evans and Ryan painstakingly describe the bison-sized dinosaur in a \u003ca href=\"http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130007\">paper\u003c/a> in the open-access journal \u003ca href=\"https://www.plos.org/\">PLOS ONE\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The newly described species had an unusually flamboyant head for its time. It’s significant because at 79 million years of age it represents the beginning of an explosion in diversity among the ceratopsids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104383\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104383\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg\" alt=\"Head of Wendiceratops\" width=\"800\" height=\"656\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-800x656.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-400x328.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live-960x787.jpg 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_live.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>Wendiceratops pinhornensis\u003c/i>, as reconstructed by scientific illustrator \u003ca href=\"http://www.ddufault.com/paleo.html\">Danielle Dufault\u003c/a> for the Royal Ontario Museum (Dufault/PLOS) \u003ccite>(Danielle Dufault/PLOS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Ceratopsids are part of a much larger group of dinosaurs called the ceratopsians, which originated about 160 million years ago. The oldest ceratopsids have been found only in China in rocks about 90 million years old. After a gap of 10 million years, ceratopsids appeared in North America, where they thrived for the rest of the Cretaceous Period, from about 80 to 66 million years ago. They finally went extinct in the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2014/12/18/dinosaur-extinction-new-research-favors-volcanism-as-cause/\">catastrophic events that ended the Cretaceous\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> fossils came from a “bonebed” that contained remains of at least four individuals. More than 200 fossils were retrieved from a space the size of a living room, excavated between 2011 and 2014. This is an unusually good record for an early American ceratopsid species, most of which are known from just a few fossil fragments. The collection has examples of most of the important bones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104384\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104384\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry-800x584.jpg\" alt=\"Wendiceratops quarry\" width=\"800\" height=\"584\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/Wendiceratops_quarry-400x292.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> quarry in southern Alberta. The diggers are standing at the level of the bonebed. Rock exposures like these have yielded thousands of dinosaur fossils in the U.S. and Canada. The Bay Area at this time was \u003ca href=\"https://oaklandgeology.wordpress.com/2015/06/29/shepherd-canyon-type-localities-of-oakland-rocks/\">deep underwater\u003c/a>. (Evans)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The most distinctive part of \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> is its frill. The flaring top of the frill, or parietal bone, has several gently pointed spikes that flop forward like bangs. And the knobs along the sides and base of the frill lie in a line as even and consistent as a movie star’s teeth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_104385\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-104385\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-800x527.png\" alt=\"Frill bones of ceratopsids\" width=\"800\" height=\"527\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-800x527.png 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-400x263.png 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill-960x632.png 960w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/07/wendi-frill.png 1008w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The frill bones of \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i>, at center, consist of the central parietal bone and the two squamous bones below. Surrounding it are parietals of other ceratopsids: (left to right) \u003ci>Xenoceratops\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Centrosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Styracosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Achelosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Albertaceratops\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Pachyrhinosaurus\u003c/i>, \u003ci>Einiosaurus\u003c/i> and \u003ci>Diabloceratops\u003c/i>. (Evans/PLOS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another feature of professional interest to Evans and Ryan is the nose horn, represented in the fossils by its bony core. (Until more fossils are found, we can only guess at the horn’s actual shape.) Their analysis shows that nose horns probably evolved at least two separate times in this line of dinosaurs. As in other cases of convergent evolution, the horns originated in different ways, but ended up looking the same.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Evans and Ryan note that \u003ci>Wendiceratops\u003c/i> shared the Cretaceous plains with several other ceratopsid species, such as \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertaceratops\">\u003ci>Albertaceratops\u003c/i>\u003c/a>. This fits with the idea that the famous ornamented frills of the ceratopsids served to tell apart the different species, although they also may have helped the animals regulate their body temperature.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/104381/wendys-ceratops-a-new-face-in-the-dinosaur-line","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_30","science_38","science_40"],"tags":["science_2145","science_116","science_349"],"featImg":"science_104382","label":"science"},"science_29537":{"type":"posts","id":"science_29537","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"29537","score":null,"sort":[1429802392000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"stegosaurus-male-or-female-the-answer-is-in-the-plates","title":"Stegosaurus, Male or Female? The Answer Is in the Plates","publishDate":1429802392,"format":"aside","headTitle":"Stegosaurus, Male or Female? The Answer Is in the Plates | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29557\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-profiles.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-profiles.png\" alt=\"Male and female Stegosaurus\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29557\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A stylized picture of how the spinal plates differed in male and female \u003cem>Stegosaurus mjosi\u003c/em>. A new paper argues that sexual dimorphism is the most likely explanation for these two distinct types within the same species. (Saitta/PLOS One)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>We all know and love \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i>, the big dinosaurs with the spiked tails and the wonderful double-row of big bony plates on their spines. But when a child asks “Which is a boy and which is a girl?” the experts have no answer. For a long time they’ve said that dinosaurs probably didn’t differ by sex. But a young paleontologist has found that those plates are the key to \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> sex.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dinosaurs have been an enduring puzzle \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur#History_of_study\">since scientists described the first one\u003c/a> nearly 200 years ago. Since the 1970s, dinosaur science has been in a vigorous ferment. We’re learning that dinosaurs were not the slow, stupid reptilian animals we used to picture. Now we’re told that dinosaurs were nimble, colorful, plumage-bearing, possibly warm-blooded creatures that are reminiscent of birds, their living descendents. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Living creatures very commonly differ between male and female, a property called sexual dimorphism. But it hasn’t been easy to tell whether dinosaurs were the same way. \u003ca href=\"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123503\">In a study just published\u003c/a> in the open-access journal \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosone.org/\">PLOS One\u003c/a>, Evan Saitta used a computerized shape-testing technique to distinguish two types of \u003cem>Stegosaurus\u003c/em> and argued that they represent the two sexes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saitta took advantage of an unusual opportunity, the discovery of a \u003cem>Stegosaurus\u003c/em> “graveyard” in central Montana. Having numerous examples of the same species, \u003ci>Stegosaurus mjosi\u003c/i>, allowed him to apply geometric morphometrics, a computer-based method of comparing shapes, to the bony plates along the spine that make these dinosaurs so recognizable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geometric morphometrics is a more objective way to compare shapes than having experts eyeball them and then argue about them. Here’s an example from the La Brea tar pits, where hundreds of prehistoric jawbones have been collected from three very similar canine species: coyotes, gray wolves, and the extinct dire wolf, \u003ci>Canis dirus\u003c/i>. UC Berkeley researcher Eric Holt took a standard set of measurements from each fossil, as shown below, and put them all in a database.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29558\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/C-dirus-template.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/C-dirus-template.jpg\" alt=\"Dire wolf jawbone\" width=\"600\" height=\"303\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29558\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dire wolf jaw and standard geometric measurements. (Holt/UCMP)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>He then had a computer perform a \u003ca href=\"http://setosa.io/ev/principal-component-analysis/\">principal component analysis\u003c/a> (PCA), which figures out the most efficient way to sort out a mess of complicated data. The technique generalizes something we do intuitively when, for instance, we sort out a bushel of mixed oranges, tangerines and mandarins even though each type of fruit may vary a lot in appearance. The PCA operation shows that the three dog species are easily separated by just two sets of numerical relationships—principal components—labeled 1 and 2.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29559\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/3-dog-PCA.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/3-dog-PCA.png\" alt=\"Jaws of three canids\" width=\"600\" height=\"409\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29559\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The results of PCA distinguish the jawbones of gray wolf (\u003ci>Canis lupus\u003c/i>), coyote (\u003ci>Canis latrans\u003c/i>) and dire wolf (\u003ci>Canis dirus\u003c/i>) on the basis of just two numerical factors. (Holt/UCMP)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When Saitta went through this exercise with 40 \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> plates, their shapes neatly fell into a Mutt-and-Jeff pattern of two groups. One is wide and rounded, the other is narrow and tall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29560\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-boy-girl-plates.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-boy-girl-plates.jpg\" alt=\"Male and female stegosaur plates\" width=\"600\" height=\"305\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29560\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The largest examples of the rounded (“wide morph”) and pointed (“tall morph”) \u003ci>Stegosaur\u003c/i> plate types. (Saitta/PLOS One)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The next question is whether this difference is sex-related or due to something else: (1) maybe individuals varied a lot; (2) maybe both types occurred on the same animal; (3) maybe they represent different species; and (4) maybe one is a juvenile form of the other. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123503\">In the PLOS One paper\u003c/a>, Saitta considers and eliminates these alternatives using evidence from inside the bones, from other bones and from the quarry where the fossils were found. He concludes, “With all alternate hypotheses apparently ruled out, sexual dimorphism is the most likely explanation for the observed variation in the plates.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which is the boy \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> and which is the girl? Without the evidence of dinosaur eggs or the marrow of leg bones, we can’t yet tell. Saitta speculates that if the large, herbivorous \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> was like modern bovid species like cows and bison, the males would have the wide plates for display purposes, and the females would have the tall ones for defensive purposes. But unlike these modern bovids, in which the males compete with each other to choose females, Saitta argues that it was the females who selected mates, otherwise the males would have evolved bigger spikes on their tails.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remarkably, Saitta did this study \u003ca href=\"http://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S39/82/82K53/index.xml\">as an undergraduate at Princeton University\u003c/a>. Today he’s earning a master’s in paleobiology at the University of Bristol, and I look forward to more from this promising young scientist as he brings these ancient creatures closer to life.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"A young paleontologist has figured out how to tell male and female stegosaurs apart from the rows of plates upon their backs.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704931935,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":13,"wordCount":814},"headData":{"title":"Stegosaurus, Male or Female? The Answer Is in the Plates | KQED","description":"A young paleontologist has figured out how to tell male and female stegosaurs apart from the rows of plates upon their backs.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Stegosaurus, Male or Female? The Answer Is in the Plates","datePublished":"2015-04-23T15:19:52.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-11T00:12:15.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/29537/stegosaurus-male-or-female-the-answer-is-in-the-plates","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29557\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-profiles.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-profiles.png\" alt=\"Male and female Stegosaurus\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29557\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A stylized picture of how the spinal plates differed in male and female \u003cem>Stegosaurus mjosi\u003c/em>. A new paper argues that sexual dimorphism is the most likely explanation for these two distinct types within the same species. (Saitta/PLOS One)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>We all know and love \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i>, the big dinosaurs with the spiked tails and the wonderful double-row of big bony plates on their spines. But when a child asks “Which is a boy and which is a girl?” the experts have no answer. For a long time they’ve said that dinosaurs probably didn’t differ by sex. But a young paleontologist has found that those plates are the key to \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> sex.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dinosaurs have been an enduring puzzle \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur#History_of_study\">since scientists described the first one\u003c/a> nearly 200 years ago. Since the 1970s, dinosaur science has been in a vigorous ferment. We’re learning that dinosaurs were not the slow, stupid reptilian animals we used to picture. Now we’re told that dinosaurs were nimble, colorful, plumage-bearing, possibly warm-blooded creatures that are reminiscent of birds, their living descendents. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Living creatures very commonly differ between male and female, a property called sexual dimorphism. But it hasn’t been easy to tell whether dinosaurs were the same way. \u003ca href=\"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123503\">In a study just published\u003c/a> in the open-access journal \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosone.org/\">PLOS One\u003c/a>, Evan Saitta used a computerized shape-testing technique to distinguish two types of \u003cem>Stegosaurus\u003c/em> and argued that they represent the two sexes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saitta took advantage of an unusual opportunity, the discovery of a \u003cem>Stegosaurus\u003c/em> “graveyard” in central Montana. Having numerous examples of the same species, \u003ci>Stegosaurus mjosi\u003c/i>, allowed him to apply geometric morphometrics, a computer-based method of comparing shapes, to the bony plates along the spine that make these dinosaurs so recognizable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geometric morphometrics is a more objective way to compare shapes than having experts eyeball them and then argue about them. Here’s an example from the La Brea tar pits, where hundreds of prehistoric jawbones have been collected from three very similar canine species: coyotes, gray wolves, and the extinct dire wolf, \u003ci>Canis dirus\u003c/i>. UC Berkeley researcher Eric Holt took a standard set of measurements from each fossil, as shown below, and put them all in a database.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29558\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/C-dirus-template.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/C-dirus-template.jpg\" alt=\"Dire wolf jawbone\" width=\"600\" height=\"303\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29558\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dire wolf jaw and standard geometric measurements. (Holt/UCMP)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>He then had a computer perform a \u003ca href=\"http://setosa.io/ev/principal-component-analysis/\">principal component analysis\u003c/a> (PCA), which figures out the most efficient way to sort out a mess of complicated data. The technique generalizes something we do intuitively when, for instance, we sort out a bushel of mixed oranges, tangerines and mandarins even though each type of fruit may vary a lot in appearance. The PCA operation shows that the three dog species are easily separated by just two sets of numerical relationships—principal components—labeled 1 and 2.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29559\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/3-dog-PCA.png\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/3-dog-PCA.png\" alt=\"Jaws of three canids\" width=\"600\" height=\"409\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29559\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The results of PCA distinguish the jawbones of gray wolf (\u003ci>Canis lupus\u003c/i>), coyote (\u003ci>Canis latrans\u003c/i>) and dire wolf (\u003ci>Canis dirus\u003c/i>) on the basis of just two numerical factors. (Holt/UCMP)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When Saitta went through this exercise with 40 \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> plates, their shapes neatly fell into a Mutt-and-Jeff pattern of two groups. One is wide and rounded, the other is narrow and tall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29560\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-boy-girl-plates.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/steg-boy-girl-plates.jpg\" alt=\"Male and female stegosaur plates\" width=\"600\" height=\"305\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29560\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The largest examples of the rounded (“wide morph”) and pointed (“tall morph”) \u003ci>Stegosaur\u003c/i> plate types. (Saitta/PLOS One)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The next question is whether this difference is sex-related or due to something else: (1) maybe individuals varied a lot; (2) maybe both types occurred on the same animal; (3) maybe they represent different species; and (4) maybe one is a juvenile form of the other. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123503\">In the PLOS One paper\u003c/a>, Saitta considers and eliminates these alternatives using evidence from inside the bones, from other bones and from the quarry where the fossils were found. He concludes, “With all alternate hypotheses apparently ruled out, sexual dimorphism is the most likely explanation for the observed variation in the plates.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which is the boy \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> and which is the girl? Without the evidence of dinosaur eggs or the marrow of leg bones, we can’t yet tell. Saitta speculates that if the large, herbivorous \u003ci>Stegosaurus\u003c/i> was like modern bovid species like cows and bison, the males would have the wide plates for display purposes, and the females would have the tall ones for defensive purposes. But unlike these modern bovids, in which the males compete with each other to choose females, Saitta argues that it was the females who selected mates, otherwise the males would have evolved bigger spikes on their tails.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remarkably, Saitta did this study \u003ca href=\"http://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S39/82/82K53/index.xml\">as an undergraduate at Princeton University\u003c/a>. Today he’s earning a master’s in paleobiology at the University of Bristol, and I look forward to more from this promising young scientist as he brings these ancient creatures closer to life.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/29537/stegosaurus-male-or-female-the-answer-is-in-the-plates","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_2145","science_116","science_349"],"featImg":"science_29557","label":"science"},"science_29262":{"type":"posts","id":"science_29262","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"29262","score":null,"sort":[1429216617000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"fossil-study-detects-another-mass-extinction-in-the-deep-past","title":"Fossil Study Detects Another Mass Extinction in the Deep Past","publishDate":1429216617,"format":"aside","headTitle":"Fossil Study Detects Another Mass Extinction in the Deep Past | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29263\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/spitsbergen-permian.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/spitsbergen-permian.jpg\" alt=\"Capitanian rocks in Spitsbergen\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29263\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fossils in these three orange beds of ancient limestone in the Arctic islands of Spitsbergen record a great extinction event about 262 million years ago, during the late Permian Period. (Dierk Blomeier/Geological Society of America)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Fossil specialists tell us that waves of extinction, hundreds of them, interrupted the story of life on Earth during the last billion years. Only five of these are what paleontologists have considered mass extinctions—extreme episodes that covered the whole world and killed off at least half of all known animal species. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A new study of rocks in the frozen land of Spitsbergen, a Norwegian island in the Arctic Ocean, points to a sixth mass extinction. It happened about 262 million years ago during the \u003ca href=\"http://palaeos.com/paleozoic/permian/capitanian.html\">Capitanian Age\u003c/a> of the Permian Period.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Earth looked very different in those days. Most of the dry land was in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.scotese.com/newpage5.htm\">supercontinent Pangea\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologists already knew there had been an extinction event during the Capitanian Age, but didn’t know how widespread it had been. Researchers first documented it about 20 years ago, in rocks of southern China that formed in a tropical ocean. There, it was clearly an awful catastrophe. For instance, it killed seven-eighths of all species of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/brachiopoda/brachiopoda.html\">brachiopod\u003c/a>, a family of shellfish that once dominated the seafloor. But was it a truly global, mass extinction, or a regional one, restricted to the tropics?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A team of researchers, led by David Bond of the University of Hull, took up this question by looking for extinction evidence elsewhere. They knew limestone of Capitanian age exists in Spitsbergen, a glacier-swept set of Arctic islands administered by Norway. During Capitanian time, this area was a cold-water coastal sea around the latitude of Maine, part of the Boreal Ocean. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bond’s group combed the Spitsbergen limestones for fossils of brachiopods and bivalves (the shellfish family that includes clams and oysters), while also taking hundreds of rock samples for lab tests. They \u003ca href=\"http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/early/2015/04/15/B31216.1.full.pdf+html\">published their results\u003c/a> in the \u003ca href=\"http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/\">Geological Society of America Bulletin\u003c/a> this week. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers were lucky that the extinction coincided with a widespread set of three distinctive beds of orange limestone. Recognizing this triplet in several different spots helped them compile a high-quality record showing a major, geologically sudden extinction in the fossils. At one point they counted 32 different brachiopod species. Just 30 centimeters higher in the rock outcrops, they found only four.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It took more work to correlate this evidence with the Chinese record, because the Spitsbergen limestones have none of the volcanic minerals that were used in China to determine an exact age. Nor do they have any of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/earth-sciences/micropalaeontology/microfossils/conodonts/\">conodont fossils\u003c/a> that were used to assign a fossil age to the Chinese rocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, the lab tests on the rock samples established an intricate “fingerprint” of environmental changes during Capitanian time in Spitsbergen based on: carbon isotopes (indicating atmospheric conditions), strontium isotopes (a sign of continental influence on seawater), magnetic tests (recording reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field) and trace metals and pyrite crystals (representing ocean chemistry). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of this evidence did match the record from China. And Bond’s group found similar patterns in rocks from Greenland and Arctic Canada, some of which contained conodonts matching those in tropical China. The connection isn’t straightforward, but it’s strong enough to earn publication.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Combining their new results with earlier data about the Capitanian extinction, Bond’s group argues that the cause may have been ocean acidification, resulting from massive volcanic eruptions near China. They conclude that “the Capitanian crisis did not, as previously thought, simply affect tropical marine biota: It was a truly global mass extinction.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v471/n7336/fig_tab/nature09678_T1.html\">The “Big 5” mass extinction events\u003c/a> are the end-Ordovician, late Devonian (Frasnian-Famennian), end-Permian, end-Triassic and end-Cretaceous (or “K-T”). They are so profound that even before we recognized their scope, they defined the ends of their respective geologic time periods. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many people argue that today, human influences are causing a Sixth Mass Extinction. But if there’ve been six already, we need to change that number—or stop the total so it never goes beyond six.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"A new study of fossils on an island in the Arctic Ocean show a major episode of extinction that qualifies as a new \"great dying.\"","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704931981,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":708},"headData":{"title":"Fossil Study Detects Another Mass Extinction in the Deep Past | KQED","description":"A new study of fossils on an island in the Arctic Ocean show a major episode of extinction that qualifies as a new "great dying."","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Fossil Study Detects Another Mass Extinction in the Deep Past","datePublished":"2015-04-16T20:36:57.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-11T00:13:01.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/29262/fossil-study-detects-another-mass-extinction-in-the-deep-past","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29263\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/spitsbergen-permian.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2015/04/spitsbergen-permian.jpg\" alt=\"Capitanian rocks in Spitsbergen\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29263\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fossils in these three orange beds of ancient limestone in the Arctic islands of Spitsbergen record a great extinction event about 262 million years ago, during the late Permian Period. (Dierk Blomeier/Geological Society of America)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Fossil specialists tell us that waves of extinction, hundreds of them, interrupted the story of life on Earth during the last billion years. Only five of these are what paleontologists have considered mass extinctions—extreme episodes that covered the whole world and killed off at least half of all known animal species. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A new study of rocks in the frozen land of Spitsbergen, a Norwegian island in the Arctic Ocean, points to a sixth mass extinction. It happened about 262 million years ago during the \u003ca href=\"http://palaeos.com/paleozoic/permian/capitanian.html\">Capitanian Age\u003c/a> of the Permian Period.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Earth looked very different in those days. Most of the dry land was in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.scotese.com/newpage5.htm\">supercontinent Pangea\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologists already knew there had been an extinction event during the Capitanian Age, but didn’t know how widespread it had been. Researchers first documented it about 20 years ago, in rocks of southern China that formed in a tropical ocean. There, it was clearly an awful catastrophe. For instance, it killed seven-eighths of all species of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/brachiopoda/brachiopoda.html\">brachiopod\u003c/a>, a family of shellfish that once dominated the seafloor. But was it a truly global, mass extinction, or a regional one, restricted to the tropics?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A team of researchers, led by David Bond of the University of Hull, took up this question by looking for extinction evidence elsewhere. They knew limestone of Capitanian age exists in Spitsbergen, a glacier-swept set of Arctic islands administered by Norway. During Capitanian time, this area was a cold-water coastal sea around the latitude of Maine, part of the Boreal Ocean. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bond’s group combed the Spitsbergen limestones for fossils of brachiopods and bivalves (the shellfish family that includes clams and oysters), while also taking hundreds of rock samples for lab tests. They \u003ca href=\"http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/early/2015/04/15/B31216.1.full.pdf+html\">published their results\u003c/a> in the \u003ca href=\"http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/\">Geological Society of America Bulletin\u003c/a> this week. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers were lucky that the extinction coincided with a widespread set of three distinctive beds of orange limestone. Recognizing this triplet in several different spots helped them compile a high-quality record showing a major, geologically sudden extinction in the fossils. At one point they counted 32 different brachiopod species. Just 30 centimeters higher in the rock outcrops, they found only four.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It took more work to correlate this evidence with the Chinese record, because the Spitsbergen limestones have none of the volcanic minerals that were used in China to determine an exact age. Nor do they have any of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/earth-sciences/micropalaeontology/microfossils/conodonts/\">conodont fossils\u003c/a> that were used to assign a fossil age to the Chinese rocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, the lab tests on the rock samples established an intricate “fingerprint” of environmental changes during Capitanian time in Spitsbergen based on: carbon isotopes (indicating atmospheric conditions), strontium isotopes (a sign of continental influence on seawater), magnetic tests (recording reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field) and trace metals and pyrite crystals (representing ocean chemistry). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of this evidence did match the record from China. And Bond’s group found similar patterns in rocks from Greenland and Arctic Canada, some of which contained conodonts matching those in tropical China. The connection isn’t straightforward, but it’s strong enough to earn publication.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Combining their new results with earlier data about the Capitanian extinction, Bond’s group argues that the cause may have been ocean acidification, resulting from massive volcanic eruptions near China. They conclude that “the Capitanian crisis did not, as previously thought, simply affect tropical marine biota: It was a truly global mass extinction.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v471/n7336/fig_tab/nature09678_T1.html\">The “Big 5” mass extinction events\u003c/a> are the end-Ordovician, late Devonian (Frasnian-Famennian), end-Permian, end-Triassic and end-Cretaceous (or “K-T”). They are so profound that even before we recognized their scope, they defined the ends of their respective geologic time periods. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many people argue that today, human influences are causing a Sixth Mass Extinction. But if there’ve been six already, we need to change that number—or stop the total so it never goes beyond six.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/29262/fossil-study-detects-another-mass-extinction-in-the-deep-past","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_38"],"tags":["science_349"],"featImg":"science_29263","label":"science"},"science_22389":{"type":"posts","id":"science_22389","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"science","id":"22389","score":null,"sort":[1412893868000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"join-a-series-of-geological-treasure-hunts-with-earth-science-week-2014","title":"Join a Series of Geological Treasure Hunts With Earth Science Week 2014","publishDate":1412893868,"format":"aside","headTitle":"Join a Series of Geological Treasure Hunts With Earth Science Week 2014 | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"science"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22390\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-2.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-2.jpg\" alt=\"Mammoth Rocks\" width=\"600\" height=\"421\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22390\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mammoth Rocks, Sonoma County (Andrew Alden)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Every year, around the opposite side of the calendar from Earth Day, is a loosely organized event called \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/\">Earth Science Week\u003c/a>. (It also has a \u003ca href=\"https://www.facebook.com/pages/Earth-Science-Week/24519701661\">Facebook page\u003c/a>.) Earth Science Week is October 12-18 this year, and the special theme for 2014 is “Earth’s Connected Systems.” Think of it as a series of treasure hunts with a mass demonstration in the middle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sunday the 12th launches Earth Science Week with \u003ca href=\"http://community.geosociety.org/EarthCache/events/earthcacheday\">International EarthCache Day\u003c/a>. EarthCaches are a science-oriented kind of geocache—you visit a precise location, using a GPS instrument, and follow a set of instructions to learn about what geological feature you’re seeing there. Unlike ordinary geocaches, you don’t retrieve a hidden box and trade for one of the trinkets inside. \u003ca href=\"http://blog.geocaching.com/2014/09/your-next-souvenir-reveals-mysteries-of-the-earth/\">But you can earn a special EarthCache souvenir that day.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Monday is Earth Science Literacy Day. Task forces of geologists have been debating the concept of “Earth science literacy” for the last few years, deciding what are the most important things we want you to know. The Earth Science Week website suggests that you \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/big-ideas\">start with nine “big ideas.”\u003c/a> This page is pitched at teachers, but you can be your own teacher any time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22391\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-4.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-4.jpg\" alt=\"Tafoni\" width=\"600\" height=\"428\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22391\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Honeycomb weathering at Pebble Beach, San Mateo County\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Tuesday is No Child Left Inside Day. Teachers are finding it more and more of a hassle to take their classes outdoors, despite the well-known benefits of simply getting outside and walking around. Why not skip the permission slips and do it yourself, with or without a child of your own. Teachers of all kinds, even informal ones like most of us, can use \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/ncli\">a page of ideas and guidelines from the Earth Science Week organizers\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>National Fossil Day is Wednesday, October 15. This is mainly celebrated by the National Park Service, and \u003ca href=\"http://nature.nps.gov/geology/nationalfossilday/events.cfm\">events are scheduled across the country\u003c/a>. If you happen to be in Washington DC, \u003ca href=\"http://qrius.si.edu/blog/journey-back-through-time-national-fossil-day-october-15\">the Smithsonian Institution is sponsoring a set of activities\u003c/a>. But my friends on Twitter will surely be showing off their fossils that day too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thursday coincides with the \u003ca href=\"http://www.shakeout.org/california/\">Great California ShakeOut\u003c/a>. Participating is very simple to do—at 10:16 that morning over 10 million people across the state will conduct a massive “drop, cover, and hold on” drill. This is something that we need to work into our culture—consider it a part of your identity as a Californian, and it only takes a minute. If you have more time, there are plenty more steps you can take on the ShakeOut site. My favorite easy-to-remember tip is “text first, talk second” after a major earthquake to save the load on the mobile phone network.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thursday is also tagged as Geoscience for Everyone Day. Earth science Week’s sponsor, the American Geosciences Institute, \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/geoscience-everyone-day\">pitches this as a day for people to explore careers in the geosciences\u003c/a>, especially those from under-represented groups. \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/04/earth-science-week-2012-carees-in-the-field/\">I’ve written more about that for KQED\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22392\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-3.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-3.jpg\" alt=\"Serpentine\" width=\"600\" height=\"447\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22392\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Serpentinite in the Oakland Hills, Alameda County\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Friday is \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/geologic-map-day\">Geologic Map Day\u003c/a>, celebrating one of my favorite things in geology, the colorful maps that show the different types of bedrock in a region. Geologic maps aren’t just beautiful and interesting—they’re useful for planning anything that digs up the ground, for finding minerals and avoiding hazards, and for a deeper understanding of the countryside around us. The California Geological Survey has a bunch of free maps online on its \u003ca href=\"http://www.consrv.ca.gov/cgs/information/Pages/EdResCenter.aspx\">Information page\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saturday winds up the week with \u003ca href=\"http://www.archaeological.org/archaeologyday\">International Archaeology Day\u003c/a>, sponsored by the Archaeological Insitute of America. There are many events scattered around the country and the calendar, but I suggest that your nearest natural history museum would welcome visitors, that day or any other one. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earth’s connected systems reach into the atmosphere and space as well as into the ground and the deep past. That’s why the space agency NASA is getting involved, too, with \u003ca href=\"http://nasaesw.strategies.org/events/\">a set of events aimed at students and teachers\u003c/a>. Perhaps you’d like to learn about clouds with a team of NASA atmospheric scientists; that’s happening Friday morning. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22393\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014.jpg\" alt=\"Sedimentary rock\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22393\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>To me the converging objects of the universe perpetually flow,\n\u003c/i>\u003cp>All are written to me, and I must get what the writing means.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Walt Whitman\u003c/p>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The connections of the Earth’s systems mean that everything geologists study can be brought to bear on global problems, often in unexpected ways. The central problem of climate change, and how we can cope with it, has connections throughout Earth science. Keep that in mind as you learn more about geology, the central science, next week.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The annual open-ended celebration of geology and its related sciences takes place all this coming week. See what's happening and where to take part.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1704932790,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":792},"headData":{"title":"Join a Series of Geological Treasure Hunts With Earth Science Week 2014 | KQED","description":"The annual open-ended celebration of geology and its related sciences takes place all this coming week. See what's happening and where to take part.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Join a Series of Geological Treasure Hunts With Earth Science Week 2014","datePublished":"2014-10-09T22:31:08.000Z","dateModified":"2024-01-11T00:26:30.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"sticky":false,"path":"/science/22389/join-a-series-of-geological-treasure-hunts-with-earth-science-week-2014","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22390\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-2.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-2.jpg\" alt=\"Mammoth Rocks\" width=\"600\" height=\"421\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22390\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mammoth Rocks, Sonoma County (Andrew Alden)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Every year, around the opposite side of the calendar from Earth Day, is a loosely organized event called \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/\">Earth Science Week\u003c/a>. (It also has a \u003ca href=\"https://www.facebook.com/pages/Earth-Science-Week/24519701661\">Facebook page\u003c/a>.) Earth Science Week is October 12-18 this year, and the special theme for 2014 is “Earth’s Connected Systems.” Think of it as a series of treasure hunts with a mass demonstration in the middle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sunday the 12th launches Earth Science Week with \u003ca href=\"http://community.geosociety.org/EarthCache/events/earthcacheday\">International EarthCache Day\u003c/a>. EarthCaches are a science-oriented kind of geocache—you visit a precise location, using a GPS instrument, and follow a set of instructions to learn about what geological feature you’re seeing there. Unlike ordinary geocaches, you don’t retrieve a hidden box and trade for one of the trinkets inside. \u003ca href=\"http://blog.geocaching.com/2014/09/your-next-souvenir-reveals-mysteries-of-the-earth/\">But you can earn a special EarthCache souvenir that day.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Monday is Earth Science Literacy Day. Task forces of geologists have been debating the concept of “Earth science literacy” for the last few years, deciding what are the most important things we want you to know. The Earth Science Week website suggests that you \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/big-ideas\">start with nine “big ideas.”\u003c/a> This page is pitched at teachers, but you can be your own teacher any time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22391\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-4.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-4.jpg\" alt=\"Tafoni\" width=\"600\" height=\"428\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22391\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Honeycomb weathering at Pebble Beach, San Mateo County\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Tuesday is No Child Left Inside Day. Teachers are finding it more and more of a hassle to take their classes outdoors, despite the well-known benefits of simply getting outside and walking around. Why not skip the permission slips and do it yourself, with or without a child of your own. Teachers of all kinds, even informal ones like most of us, can use \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/ncli\">a page of ideas and guidelines from the Earth Science Week organizers\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>National Fossil Day is Wednesday, October 15. This is mainly celebrated by the National Park Service, and \u003ca href=\"http://nature.nps.gov/geology/nationalfossilday/events.cfm\">events are scheduled across the country\u003c/a>. If you happen to be in Washington DC, \u003ca href=\"http://qrius.si.edu/blog/journey-back-through-time-national-fossil-day-october-15\">the Smithsonian Institution is sponsoring a set of activities\u003c/a>. But my friends on Twitter will surely be showing off their fossils that day too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thursday coincides with the \u003ca href=\"http://www.shakeout.org/california/\">Great California ShakeOut\u003c/a>. Participating is very simple to do—at 10:16 that morning over 10 million people across the state will conduct a massive “drop, cover, and hold on” drill. This is something that we need to work into our culture—consider it a part of your identity as a Californian, and it only takes a minute. If you have more time, there are plenty more steps you can take on the ShakeOut site. My favorite easy-to-remember tip is “text first, talk second” after a major earthquake to save the load on the mobile phone network.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thursday is also tagged as Geoscience for Everyone Day. Earth science Week’s sponsor, the American Geosciences Institute, \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/geoscience-everyone-day\">pitches this as a day for people to explore careers in the geosciences\u003c/a>, especially those from under-represented groups. \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/04/earth-science-week-2012-carees-in-the-field/\">I’ve written more about that for KQED\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22392\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-3.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014-3.jpg\" alt=\"Serpentine\" width=\"600\" height=\"447\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22392\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Serpentinite in the Oakland Hills, Alameda County\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Friday is \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthsciweek.org/geologic-map-day\">Geologic Map Day\u003c/a>, celebrating one of my favorite things in geology, the colorful maps that show the different types of bedrock in a region. Geologic maps aren’t just beautiful and interesting—they’re useful for planning anything that digs up the ground, for finding minerals and avoiding hazards, and for a deeper understanding of the countryside around us. The California Geological Survey has a bunch of free maps online on its \u003ca href=\"http://www.consrv.ca.gov/cgs/information/Pages/EdResCenter.aspx\">Information page\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saturday winds up the week with \u003ca href=\"http://www.archaeological.org/archaeologyday\">International Archaeology Day\u003c/a>, sponsored by the Archaeological Insitute of America. There are many events scattered around the country and the calendar, but I suggest that your nearest natural history museum would welcome visitors, that day or any other one. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earth’s connected systems reach into the atmosphere and space as well as into the ground and the deep past. That’s why the space agency NASA is getting involved, too, with \u003ca href=\"http://nasaesw.strategies.org/events/\">a set of events aimed at students and teachers\u003c/a>. Perhaps you’d like to learn about clouds with a team of NASA atmospheric scientists; that’s happening Friday morning. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_22393\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/10/ESciweek2014.jpg\" alt=\"Sedimentary rock\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-22393\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>To me the converging objects of the universe perpetually flow,\n\u003c/i>\u003cp>All are written to me, and I must get what the writing means.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Walt Whitman\u003c/p>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The connections of the Earth’s systems mean that everything geologists study can be brought to bear on global problems, often in unexpected ways. The central problem of climate change, and how we can cope with it, has connections throughout Earth science. Keep that in mind as you learn more about geology, the central science, next week.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/science/22389/join-a-series-of-geological-treasure-hunts-with-earth-science-week-2014","authors":["6228"],"categories":["science_32","science_38"],"tags":["science_1947","science_349","science_218","science_5175"],"featImg":"science_22393","label":"science"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. Michel Martin hosts on the weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 1pm-2pm, 4:30pm-6:30pm\u003cbr />SAT-SUN 5pm-6pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/All-Things-Considered-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.npr.org/programs/all-things-considered/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/all-things-considered"},"american-suburb-podcast":{"id":"american-suburb-podcast","title":"American Suburb: The Podcast","tagline":"The flip side of gentrification, told through one town","info":"Gentrification is changing cities across America, forcing people from neighborhoods they have long called home. Call them the displaced. Now those priced out of the Bay Area are looking for a better life in an unlikely place. American Suburb follows this migration to one California town along the Delta, 45 miles from San Francisco. But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/American-Suburb-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"13"},"link":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/American-Suburb-p1086805/","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"}},"baycurious":{"id":"baycurious","title":"Bay Curious","tagline":"Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time","info":"KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.","airtime":"THU 10pm, FRI 1am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Commonwealth Club of California"},"link":"/radio/program/commonwealth-club","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Commonwealth-Club-of-California-p1060/"}},"considerthis":{"id":"considerthis","title":"Consider This","tagline":"Make sense of the day","info":"Make sense of the day. Every weekday afternoon, Consider This helps you consider the major stories of the day in less than 15 minutes, featuring the reporting and storytelling resources of NPR. Plus, KQED’s Bianca Taylor brings you the local KQED news you need to know.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Consider-This-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"Consider This from NPR and KQED","officialWebsiteLink":"/podcasts/considerthis","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"7"},"link":"/podcasts/considerthis","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/id1503226625?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/coronavirusdaily","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5ucHIub3JnLzUxMDM1NS9wb2RjYXN0LnhtbA","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3Z6JdCS2d0eFEpXHKI6WqH"}},"forum":{"id":"forum","title":"Forum","tagline":"The conversation starts here","info":"KQED’s live call-in program discussing local, state, national and international issues, as well as in-depth interviews.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9am-11am, 10pm-11pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Forum-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"KQED Forum with Mina Kim and Alexis Madrigal","officialWebsiteLink":"/forum","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"8"},"link":"/forum","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/kqeds-forum/id73329719","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM5NTU3MzgxNjMz","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/432307980/forum","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqedfm-kqeds-forum-podcast","rss":"https://feeds.megaphone.fm/KQINC9557381633"}},"freakonomics-radio":{"id":"freakonomics-radio","title":"Freakonomics Radio","info":"Freakonomics Radio is a one-hour award-winning podcast and public-radio project hosted by Stephen Dubner, with co-author Steve Levitt as a regular guest. It is produced in partnership with WNYC.","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/freakonomicsRadio.png","officialWebsiteLink":"http://freakonomics.com/","airtime":"SUN 1am-2am, SAT 3pm-4pm","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"WNYC"},"link":"/radio/program/freakonomics-radio","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/4s8b","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/freakonomics-radio/id354668519","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/podcasts/WNYC-Podcasts/Freakonomics-Radio-p272293/","rss":"https://feeds.feedburner.com/freakonomicsradio"}},"fresh-air":{"id":"fresh-air","title":"Fresh Air","info":"Hosted by Terry Gross, \u003cem>Fresh Air from WHYY\u003c/em> is the Peabody Award-winning weekday magazine of contemporary arts and issues. One of public radio's most popular programs, Fresh Air features intimate conversations with today's biggest luminaries.","airtime":"MON-FRI 7pm-8pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Fresh-Air-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.npr.org/programs/fresh-air/","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/fresh-air","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/4s8b","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=214089682&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Fresh-Air-p17/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/381444908/podcast.xml"}},"here-and-now":{"id":"here-and-now","title":"Here & Now","info":"A live production of NPR and WBUR Boston, in collaboration with stations across the country, Here & Now reflects the fluid world of news as it's happening in the middle of the day, with timely, in-depth news, interviews and conversation. Hosted by Robin Young, Jeremy Hobson and Tonya Mosley.","airtime":"MON-THU 11am-12pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Here-And-Now-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"http://www.wbur.org/hereandnow","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/here-and-now","subsdcribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=426698661","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Here--Now-p211/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510051/podcast.xml"}},"how-i-built-this":{"id":"how-i-built-this","title":"How I Built This with Guy Raz","info":"Guy Raz dives into the stories behind some of the world's best known companies. 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No other part of the globe has experienced such dynamic political and social change in recent years.","airtime":"SAT 3am-4am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Inside-Europe-Podcast-Tile-300x300-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Deutsche Welle"},"link":"/radio/program/inside-europe","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/inside-europe/id80106806?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Inside-Europe-p731/","rss":"https://partner.dw.com/xml/podcast_inside-europe"}},"latino-usa":{"id":"latino-usa","title":"Latino USA","airtime":"MON 1am-2am, SUN 6pm-7pm","info":"Latino USA, the radio journal of news and culture, is the only national, English-language radio program produced from a Latino perspective.","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/latinoUsa.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"http://latinousa.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/latino-usa","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/xtTd","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=79681317&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Latino-USA-p621/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510016/podcast.xml"}},"live-from-here-highlights":{"id":"live-from-here-highlights","title":"Live from Here Highlights","info":"Chris Thile steps to the mic as the host of Live from Here (formerly A Prairie Home Companion), a live public radio variety show. 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Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.","airtime":"MON-FRI 4pm-4:30pm, MON-WED 6:30pm-7pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marketplace-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.marketplace.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"American Public Media"},"link":"/radio/program/marketplace","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=201853034&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/APM-Marketplace-p88/","rss":"https://feeds.publicradio.org/public_feeds/marketplace-pm/rss/rss"}},"mindshift":{"id":"mindshift","title":"MindShift","tagline":"A podcast about the future of learning and how we raise our kids","info":"The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn","officialWebsiteLink":"/mindshift/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"2"},"link":"/podcasts/mindshift","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/0MxSpNYZKNprFLCl7eEtyx"}},"morning-edition":{"id":"morning-edition","title":"Morning Edition","info":"\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. 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On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. 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