Fish and SNPs: What fish are teaching us about human skin color
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Every study clearly shows that genetics plays an important role in this disease. But when these studies try to find a cause, they keep coming up short.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And this isn’t because scientists aren’t trying hard. They are. In most of the recent studies they are comparing thousands of people’s DNA at millions of different spots. If there was a simple explanation, they would have found it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One thing they have managed to find from all of these studies is that a minority of cases result from \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=49\">brand new mutations\u003c/a> that most likely happen in either the sperm or the egg before fertilization. While these are not going to be that useful as a diagnostic test, they may prove useful as a way of figuring out which genes to focus on. And maybe even for coming up with new ways to treat autism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With that in mind, a whole slew of researchers set out to find more of these sorts of \u003cem>de novo\u003c/em> mutations (as they are called). They reported their findings in the following three back to back to back reports in the journal \u003cem>Nature\u003c/em>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11011.html\">Study 1\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10989.html\">Study 2\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10945.html\">Study 3\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These researchers took on the herculean task of looking at every letter of every gene of over two thousand people. Basically they compared the genes of parents to the genes of their autistic children (and a few of their unaffected siblings). They were able to confirm that some previously identified genes were important in autism and they identified a few new ones. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They were also able to confirm that older dads pass on more of these sorts of mutations than younger dads or moms of any age. Which makes sense if you think about sperm production.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each time a sperm is made, its DNA needs to get copied. And each time DNA is copied, there is a chance for a mistake to creep in. So it makes sense that the older the dad, the more mutations he’ll have in his sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Frustratingly, this was the most solid finding in the study. But fret not. They also learned some important things about how autism happens too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most important thing they found was that many children with autism shared mutations in related genes. Their mutations affected different genes that all impacted the same or related biochemical pathways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_36297\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/30/desperately-seeking-autism-genes/autisticbrain2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-36297\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/autisticBrain2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"autisticBrain2\" width=\"250\" height=\"158\" class=\"size-full wp-image-36297\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An fMRI scan of an autistic brain.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This is what we might expect from something as complicated as brain development. To pull off something like this, various genes are going to need to fire off at the right time in the right order. If any one of the genes in a similar pathway misfires, you can end up with similar problems. And this is undoubtedly happening in some cases of autism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is a very important finding for identifying where to focus research so new treatments can be found for this disease. Isolated genes can be hard to target because sometimes scientists don’t know what they are doing or how they fit into the grand scheme of things. But researchers can identify a pathway, then they can identify chemicals that can tweak that pathway that can one day become medicines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These studies also highlight yet again what a hideously complex disease autism is. Your risk depends on what versions of lots of different genes you have. Some versions will increase your risk and some will decrease it. Your chances are a summation of all of these risks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As if this wasn’t complicated enough, autism is more than genes. Something \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/18/autism-more-than-genes/\">in the environment\u003c/a> has to trigger the disease and we know very little about these triggers (except that vaccines aren’t one). Now add to this the fact that different genetic combinations are going to be susceptible to different triggers and you begin to see why this has been such a challenge to geneticists. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Figuring out why a particular person ended up with autism is really hard. But even if we can’t figure it out for a particular person, these studies are important for finding what is happening in the brains of people with autism. And hopefully by knowing that, we can find new treatments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MM-x25z-i7w]\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nA long video about the biology of autism. Well worth your time.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Autism is incredibly frustrating from a genetic point of view. Every study clearly shows that genetics plays an important role in this disease. But when these studies try to find a cause, they keep coming up short.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1336072658,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":true,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":18,"wordCount":754},"headData":{"title":"Desperately Seeking Autism Genes | KQED","description":"Autism is incredibly frustrating from a genetic point of view. Every study clearly shows that genetics plays an important role in this disease. But when these studies try to find a cause, they keep coming up short.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"36278 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=36278","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/30/desperately-seeking-autism-genes/","disqusTitle":"Desperately Seeking Autism Genes","path":"/quest/36278/desperately-seeking-autism-genes","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_36281\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/30/desperately-seeking-autism-genes/xychrom/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-36281\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/XYchrom.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"XYchrom\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-36281\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/XYchrom.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/XYchrom-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Brand new mutations are helping scientists figure out what is going on in autism.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Autism is incredibly frustrating from a genetic point of view. Every study clearly shows that genetics plays an important role in this disease. But when these studies try to find a cause, they keep coming up short.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And this isn’t because scientists aren’t trying hard. They are. In most of the recent studies they are comparing thousands of people’s DNA at millions of different spots. If there was a simple explanation, they would have found it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One thing they have managed to find from all of these studies is that a minority of cases result from \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=49\">brand new mutations\u003c/a> that most likely happen in either the sperm or the egg before fertilization. While these are not going to be that useful as a diagnostic test, they may prove useful as a way of figuring out which genes to focus on. And maybe even for coming up with new ways to treat autism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With that in mind, a whole slew of researchers set out to find more of these sorts of \u003cem>de novo\u003c/em> mutations (as they are called). They reported their findings in the following three back to back to back reports in the journal \u003cem>Nature\u003c/em>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11011.html\">Study 1\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10989.html\">Study 2\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10945.html\">Study 3\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These researchers took on the herculean task of looking at every letter of every gene of over two thousand people. Basically they compared the genes of parents to the genes of their autistic children (and a few of their unaffected siblings). They were able to confirm that some previously identified genes were important in autism and they identified a few new ones. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They were also able to confirm that older dads pass on more of these sorts of mutations than younger dads or moms of any age. Which makes sense if you think about sperm production.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each time a sperm is made, its DNA needs to get copied. And each time DNA is copied, there is a chance for a mistake to creep in. So it makes sense that the older the dad, the more mutations he’ll have in his sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Frustratingly, this was the most solid finding in the study. But fret not. They also learned some important things about how autism happens too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most important thing they found was that many children with autism shared mutations in related genes. Their mutations affected different genes that all impacted the same or related biochemical pathways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_36297\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/30/desperately-seeking-autism-genes/autisticbrain2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-36297\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/autisticBrain2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"autisticBrain2\" width=\"250\" height=\"158\" class=\"size-full wp-image-36297\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An fMRI scan of an autistic brain.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This is what we might expect from something as complicated as brain development. To pull off something like this, various genes are going to need to fire off at the right time in the right order. If any one of the genes in a similar pathway misfires, you can end up with similar problems. And this is undoubtedly happening in some cases of autism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is a very important finding for identifying where to focus research so new treatments can be found for this disease. Isolated genes can be hard to target because sometimes scientists don’t know what they are doing or how they fit into the grand scheme of things. But researchers can identify a pathway, then they can identify chemicals that can tweak that pathway that can one day become medicines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These studies also highlight yet again what a hideously complex disease autism is. Your risk depends on what versions of lots of different genes you have. Some versions will increase your risk and some will decrease it. Your chances are a summation of all of these risks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As if this wasn’t complicated enough, autism is more than genes. Something \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/18/autism-more-than-genes/\">in the environment\u003c/a> has to trigger the disease and we know very little about these triggers (except that vaccines aren’t one). Now add to this the fact that different genetic combinations are going to be susceptible to different triggers and you begin to see why this has been such a challenge to geneticists. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Figuring out why a particular person ended up with autism is really hard. But even if we can’t figure it out for a particular person, these studies are important for finding what is happening in the brains of people with autism. And hopefully by knowing that, we can find new treatments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/MM-x25z-i7w'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/MM-x25z-i7w'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nA long video about the biology of autism. Well worth your time.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/36278/desperately-seeking-autism-genes","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_256","quest_11031","quest_11030","quest_1197","quest_1900","quest_13202","quest_2684","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_36281","label":"quest"},"quest_23256":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_23256","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"23256","score":null,"sort":[1314633398000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"how-neanderthal-are-you","title":"How Neanderthal are You?","publishDate":1314633398,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23286\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/29/how-neanderthal-are-you/percneanderthal/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-23286\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/PercNeanderthal.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"PercNeanderthal\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23286\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/PercNeanderthal.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/PercNeanderthal-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">These results from the \"Interpretome\" tool show that there is a bit of a Neanderthal in me.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Asking someone if they were a Neanderthal used to be an insult but is now kind of a valid question. If you have any Europeans, Asians or Native Americans in your family tree, odds are there is a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/05/24/my-3000th-great-grandpa-was-a-neanderthal/\">bit of Neanderthal\u003c/a> in there as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As one of the whitest people on the planet, I almost certainly have mostly European ancestors. And if I had any doubts, my 23andMe ancestry results confirm the obvious…I am European through and through.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means there is almost certainly some Neanderthal DNA squirreled away in my genome. But how much? I decided to try to find out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First I asked \u003ca href=\"https://www.23andme.com/\">23andMe\u003c/a>. They quickly replied that they didn’t do that, sorry. So as often happens, I needed to take my genome on a jaunt through the internet to find a tool that could give me the answer I was looking for.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I first went to my favorite, \u003ca href=\"http://www.snpedia.com/index.php/SNPedia\">SNPedia\u003c/a>. No luck though. Just a piece about the \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=67\">Neanderthal red hair version of the MC1R gene\u003c/a> that hasn’t yet been found in humans. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then I remembered a discussion at Stanford about which professor was genetically the most Neanderthal. Obviously they must have a way of figuring this out. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So I contacted Dr. Mike Snyder and he led me to Konrad Karczewski, a graduate student at Stanford. And he directed me to a tool called the \u003ca href=\"http://esquilax.stanford.edu/#start\">Interpretome \u003c/a>that he and some other Stanford folks had developed for their \u003ca href=\"http://stanford.edu/class/gene210/web/html/welcome.html\">personalized medicine class\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This tool has a lot of cool features (feel free to explore) but I headed straight for the Neanderthal section. I plugged in my 23andMe raw data and out popped my results. There are definitely some Neanderthals in my family tree!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The site looks at 42 different markers and since we have two copies of each, there are 84 possible Neanderthal hits. I scored a 7 out of 84.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, since I don’t know if that is a lot, I asked Konrad about the kinds of ranges he sees. He said the average European has a score of around 7-10 which puts me at the lower end of average. He also said that someone in an online forum had reported a 26 but the highest Konrad had ever seen with his own eyes was 20. And that the lowest he has seen for Europeans or Asians was around 3-5.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So there you have it. I am on the low end of Neanderthalness for someone of European descent using these 42 \u003ca href=\"https://www.23andme.com/gen101/snps/\">SNPs\u003c/a>. And less Neanderthal than a number of Stanford professors!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How cool are genetics when it lets me figure out that I am definitely a bit Neanderthal but not as Neanderthal as certain unnamed Stanford professors? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>More Information\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=128\">Neanderthals and you.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Graduate students at Stanford have created a tool called the Interpretome that lets you plug in your genome so you can figure out how Neanderthal you are.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1314731355,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":483},"headData":{"title":"How Neanderthal are You? | KQED","description":"Graduate students at Stanford have created a tool called the Interpretome that lets you plug in your genome so you can figure out how Neanderthal you are.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"23256 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=23256","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/29/how-neanderthal-are-you/","disqusTitle":"How Neanderthal are You?","path":"/quest/23256/how-neanderthal-are-you","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23286\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/29/how-neanderthal-are-you/percneanderthal/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-23286\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/PercNeanderthal.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"PercNeanderthal\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-23286\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/PercNeanderthal.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/PercNeanderthal-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">These results from the \"Interpretome\" tool show that there is a bit of a Neanderthal in me.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Asking someone if they were a Neanderthal used to be an insult but is now kind of a valid question. If you have any Europeans, Asians or Native Americans in your family tree, odds are there is a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/05/24/my-3000th-great-grandpa-was-a-neanderthal/\">bit of Neanderthal\u003c/a> in there as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As one of the whitest people on the planet, I almost certainly have mostly European ancestors. And if I had any doubts, my 23andMe ancestry results confirm the obvious…I am European through and through.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means there is almost certainly some Neanderthal DNA squirreled away in my genome. But how much? I decided to try to find out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First I asked \u003ca href=\"https://www.23andme.com/\">23andMe\u003c/a>. They quickly replied that they didn’t do that, sorry. So as often happens, I needed to take my genome on a jaunt through the internet to find a tool that could give me the answer I was looking for.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I first went to my favorite, \u003ca href=\"http://www.snpedia.com/index.php/SNPedia\">SNPedia\u003c/a>. No luck though. Just a piece about the \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=67\">Neanderthal red hair version of the MC1R gene\u003c/a> that hasn’t yet been found in humans. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then I remembered a discussion at Stanford about which professor was genetically the most Neanderthal. Obviously they must have a way of figuring this out. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So I contacted Dr. Mike Snyder and he led me to Konrad Karczewski, a graduate student at Stanford. And he directed me to a tool called the \u003ca href=\"http://esquilax.stanford.edu/#start\">Interpretome \u003c/a>that he and some other Stanford folks had developed for their \u003ca href=\"http://stanford.edu/class/gene210/web/html/welcome.html\">personalized medicine class\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This tool has a lot of cool features (feel free to explore) but I headed straight for the Neanderthal section. I plugged in my 23andMe raw data and out popped my results. There are definitely some Neanderthals in my family tree!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The site looks at 42 different markers and since we have two copies of each, there are 84 possible Neanderthal hits. I scored a 7 out of 84.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, since I don’t know if that is a lot, I asked Konrad about the kinds of ranges he sees. He said the average European has a score of around 7-10 which puts me at the lower end of average. He also said that someone in an online forum had reported a 26 but the highest Konrad had ever seen with his own eyes was 20. And that the lowest he has seen for Europeans or Asians was around 3-5.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So there you have it. I am on the low end of Neanderthalness for someone of European descent using these 42 \u003ca href=\"https://www.23andme.com/gen101/snps/\">SNPs\u003c/a>. And less Neanderthal than a number of Stanford professors!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How cool are genetics when it lets me figure out that I am definitely a bit Neanderthal but not as Neanderthal as certain unnamed Stanford professors? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>More Information\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=128\">Neanderthals and you.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/23256/how-neanderthal-are-you","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_159","quest_1197","quest_1198","quest_10035","quest_10034","quest_13202","quest_2684","quest_3768","quest_10036","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_23286","label":"quest"},"quest_555":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_555","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"555","score":null,"sort":[1209407541000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"fish-and-snps-what-fish-are-teaching-us-about-human-skin-color","title":"Fish and SNPs: What fish are teaching us about human skin color","publishDate":1209407541,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/04/zebrafish-starr-blog1.jpg\">\u003cem>These fish can tell us a lot about ourselves.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Species often end up a different color when their environment changes. And humans are no exception.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When people moved out of Africa tens of thousands of years ago, they were dark-skinned. Now when we look around Northern Europe or parts of Asia, we see much lighter people. What happened?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A common explanation has to do with sunlight and vitamin D. When people moved north, they got less sun. Less sun means less vitamin D and awful diseases like \u003ca href=\"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/rickets/DS00813\">rickets\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Anyone who moved north and had lighter skin ended up getting more vitamin D and did better than their darker neighbors. After awhile, most of the population had light skin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is all well and good, but what happened at the gene level to cause this transformation? One way scientists are learning about how humans ended up with lighter skin is by studying fish. For example, the zebrafish has taught us a lot about why Europeans are often so pale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The zebrafish is an important \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism\">model system\u003c/a> that scientists use to study vertebrate development, human disease, and lots of other things. A common mutant fish that scientists use in these studies is called \"golden.\" These fish have lighter, yellowish stripes instead of black ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists discovered that these mutant fish had yellow stripes because of a single DNA difference (or \u003ca href=\"http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/snps.shtml\">SNP\u003c/a>*) in their SLC24A5 gene. When fish have this DNA difference, they have yellow stripes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These scientists next looked for this gene in people. What they found was that most of the people they looked at had two copies of the \"black stripe\" version of the gene. Except for Europeans. They tended to share a common SNP in their SLC24A5 gene that the scientists went on to show is a big part of why many Europeans have lighter skin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another group of researchers decided to dig a bit deeper and find out when this transformation happened. By looking at the DNA around SLC24A5, they found that lighter skin came to dominate Europe around 6,000-12,000 years ago. At first this result is a bit confusing because humans moved into Europe around 40,000 years ago. Why did it take so long for lighter skin to become the norm?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists can't know for sure but one idea is diet. Around this time, Europeans started to grow their own food. And a farmer's diet has less vitamin D than does a hunter-gatherer's diet. Maybe the lack of sun only started to affect Europeans after they started growing their own food. Then, after a relatively brief time, most Europeans ended up fair-skinned to get enough vitamin D.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This gene doesn't explain all of skin color. For example, it doesn’t explain the difference in color between Northern and Southern Europeans. Or why some Asians have fair skin. But it does explain a good deal of European coloration. Thanks, zebrafish!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>*SNP=single nucleotide polymorphism\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_barry.jpg\">\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Dr. Barry Starr\u003c/strong> is a Geneticist-in-Residence at \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a> in San Jose, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.332 -121.903\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":null,"status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1209407541,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":17,"wordCount":522},"headData":{"title":"Fish and SNPs: What fish are teaching us about human skin color | KQED","description":"These fish can tell us a lot about ourselves. Species often end up a different color when their environment changes. And humans are no exception. When people moved out of Africa tens of thousands of years ago, they were dark-skinned. Now when we look around Northern Europe or parts of Asia, we see much lighter","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"555 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2008/04/28/fish-and-snps-what-fish-are-teaching-us-about-human-skin-color/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/04/28/fish-and-snps-what-fish-are-teaching-us-about-human-skin-color/","disqusTitle":"Fish and SNPs: What fish are teaching us about human skin color","path":"/quest/555/fish-and-snps-what-fish-are-teaching-us-about-human-skin-color","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/04/zebrafish-starr-blog1.jpg\">\u003cem>These fish can tell us a lot about ourselves.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Species often end up a different color when their environment changes. And humans are no exception.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When people moved out of Africa tens of thousands of years ago, they were dark-skinned. Now when we look around Northern Europe or parts of Asia, we see much lighter people. What happened?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A common explanation has to do with sunlight and vitamin D. When people moved north, they got less sun. Less sun means less vitamin D and awful diseases like \u003ca href=\"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/rickets/DS00813\">rickets\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Anyone who moved north and had lighter skin ended up getting more vitamin D and did better than their darker neighbors. After awhile, most of the population had light skin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is all well and good, but what happened at the gene level to cause this transformation? One way scientists are learning about how humans ended up with lighter skin is by studying fish. For example, the zebrafish has taught us a lot about why Europeans are often so pale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The zebrafish is an important \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism\">model system\u003c/a> that scientists use to study vertebrate development, human disease, and lots of other things. A common mutant fish that scientists use in these studies is called \"golden.\" These fish have lighter, yellowish stripes instead of black ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists discovered that these mutant fish had yellow stripes because of a single DNA difference (or \u003ca href=\"http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/snps.shtml\">SNP\u003c/a>*) in their SLC24A5 gene. When fish have this DNA difference, they have yellow stripes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These scientists next looked for this gene in people. What they found was that most of the people they looked at had two copies of the \"black stripe\" version of the gene. Except for Europeans. They tended to share a common SNP in their SLC24A5 gene that the scientists went on to show is a big part of why many Europeans have lighter skin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another group of researchers decided to dig a bit deeper and find out when this transformation happened. By looking at the DNA around SLC24A5, they found that lighter skin came to dominate Europe around 6,000-12,000 years ago. At first this result is a bit confusing because humans moved into Europe around 40,000 years ago. Why did it take so long for lighter skin to become the norm?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists can't know for sure but one idea is diet. Around this time, Europeans started to grow their own food. And a farmer's diet has less vitamin D than does a hunter-gatherer's diet. Maybe the lack of sun only started to affect Europeans after they started growing their own food. Then, after a relatively brief time, most Europeans ended up fair-skinned to get enough vitamin D.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This gene doesn't explain all of skin color. For example, it doesn’t explain the difference in color between Northern and Southern Europeans. Or why some Asians have fair skin. But it does explain a good deal of European coloration. Thanks, zebrafish!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>*SNP=single nucleotide polymorphism\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_barry.jpg\">\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Dr. Barry Starr\u003c/strong> is a Geneticist-in-Residence at \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a> in San Jose, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.332 -121.903\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/555/fish-and-snps-what-fish-are-teaching-us-about-human-skin-color","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_848","quest_1032","quest_1197","quest_3351","quest_1849","quest_2636","quest_2646","quest_2684","quest_3213"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. 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You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. 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You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn","officialWebsiteLink":"/mindshift/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"2"},"link":"/podcasts/mindshift","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/0MxSpNYZKNprFLCl7eEtyx"}},"morning-edition":{"id":"morning-edition","title":"Morning Edition","info":"\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. 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On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. 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