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The program is part of an ongoing collaboration between the \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.stanford.edu/\">Stanford Department of Genetics\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a>. Together these two partners created the \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/permanent/index.php?sGalKey=gtwt&galKey=lt\">Genetics: Technology with a Twist\u003c/a> exhibition.\r\n\r\nYou can also see \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/author/dr-barry-starr/\">additional posts by Barry at KQED Science\u003c/a>, and read his \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/dr-barry-starr/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":"geneticsboy","facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"science","roles":["author"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Dr. Barry Starr | KQED","description":null,"ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/dr-barry-starr"},"garyhochman":{"type":"authors","id":"10297","meta":{"index":"authors_1591205172","id":"10297","found":true},"name":"Gary Hochman","firstName":"Gary","lastName":"Hochman","slug":"garyhochman","email":"GHochman@netad.unl.edu","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"Gary is a senior producer at NET Television. 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Photo credit: Gary Hochman\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">When the worlds of nature and people converge, nature is often endangered. But in a strange twist, the manmade world of highways has favored the survival of \u003ca href=\"http://birds.audubon.org/birds/cliff-swallow\">cliff swallows\u003c/a>, according to University of Nebraska ornithologist Mary Bomberger Brown. “Natural selection and human development have created a better bird,” she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_63746\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 191px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-63746 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0033a-235x253.jpg\" alt=\"DSC_0033a\" width=\"191\" height=\"205\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cliff swallows are migratory birds that live in large colonies. Photo credit: Mary Bomberger Brown\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Bomberger Brown's bold conclusion is based on her \u003ca href=\"http://download.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/PIIS0960982213001942.pdf\">30-year study of cliff swallows\u003c/a> – one of the longest running evolution studies in the world. Cliff swallows are North American migratory birds. From March to September, they nest and breed in colonies ranging from Canada to Mexico. In winter, they migrate to Chile, Argentina and Brazil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each year during the last three decades, Bomberger Brown and her colleague, Charles Brown of the University of Tulsa, have been conducting a detailed study of cliff swallow life along the roadways and waterways of western Nebraska near Lake McConaughy. Their findings show how natural conditions and human expansion have affected the birds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We found that the swallows’ wings and body changed significantly,” said Bomberger Brown. “The question was – why?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Browns never set out to conduct an evolution study. In 1982, they began studying bird behavior on a premise related to the old English proverb ‘\u003cem>birds of a feather flock together.’ \u003c/em>When the study began, the big question in behavioral ecology was, why do animals live in groups? Why are they social?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bomberger Brown explains, “Cliff swallows are one of the most social birds in North America. They all live together in large colonies.” The colonies are a natural survival strategy. Swallows are aerial insectivores, meaning they eat insects that they catch in flight. They bugs they catch fly in swarms, including mosquitoes, flies, midges, and leafhoppers. “If you live in a big community like swallows do, they share information – following groups of birds to the location of food, so they can feed more efficiently,” said Bomberger Brown.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_63742\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 260px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-63742 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/IMG_0356-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"IMG_0356\" width=\"260\" height=\"195\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cliff swallows build nests from globs of mud they deposit by the beak full. Photo credit: Mary Bomberger Brown\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>By nature, cliff swallows build their jug-shaped nests on the sides of cliffs or bluffs, as protection from birds of prey and snakes. They’re always close to water because the swallows build their nests from globs of mud they collect by the beak full. \u003cins cite=\"mailto:Lisa%20Landers\" datetime=\"2013-11-12T14:59\">\u003c/ins>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Browns began studying the swallows, most of their nests lined the bluffs along the shoreline of Lake McConaughy. In a 90 by 30 mile area, the Browns check around 80 active colonies each year. Each nest holds\u003cins cite=\"mailto:Lisa%20Landers\" datetime=\"2013-11-12T14:57\"> \u003c/ins>a pair of adults and 3-4 chicks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The average colony contains at least2,200 birds. But one colony is enormous – 6,000 nests – or about 34,000 swallows\u003cspan style=\"color: #008000\">. \u003c/span>During the long-term study, Bomberger Brown has examined 317,000 cliff swallows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But soon after their study began, Bomberger Brown began finding that many of the cliff nests were abandoned. So, where did the birds move? Driving from one site to the next, she noticed a radical shift in the birds’ nesting preference. The swallows were forming new nesting colonies in the most unlikely places; beneath highway overpasses and bridges. The Browns wondered why this was happening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_64200\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 315px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-64200 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Cliff-Swallow-Nests-on-Bridge_IMG_0365-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Cliff Swallow Nests on Bridge_IMG_0365\" width=\"315\" height=\"177\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cliff swallow nests under a highway bridge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>By chance, their study coincided with a sweeping change in roadway design. A nationwide boom in highway and interstate construction was replacing old wooden trestle bridges with new concrete bridges and overpasses. Bomberger Brown soon realized that the swallows abandoned nesting on cliffs of loose, crumbly sandstone in favor of firm concrete structures that offered overhangs sheltering the birds from the elements.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We built them a better cliff, says Bomberger Brown, “and the birds flocked to them.” As the highways, expanded east and west, the birds followed suit. “You can now see them across the country,” she adds. “They’ve just followed people in their roadways, so humans have actually expanded their range – from ocean to ocean.” To track the birds, the Browns placed metal leg bands on the swallows to identify them. And to learn how the birds compare, they capture the birds to measure their bodies, beaks, wings, feet, and tails.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And as roadways spread, so did agriculture and insects. “It’s a mutualistic relationship,” explains Bomberger Brown. “We’ve given them more food. We’ve given them places to nest. The birds provide pest control. They live with us and they’ve become part of our landscape.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But their new homes came with a risk. The highways were full of cars, trucks and RVs. “It’s an environment that can threaten their survival,” says Bomberger Brown. Soon, traveling up and down the highway, they found birds killed by cars. Examining each swallow, they measured the bodies and wings of each bird.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At first, they found about 20-40 road kill swallows. Ironically, with each year’s survey, the number of dead birds on the road was decreasing – at the same time that traffic and the size of cars were increasing. It was a curious finding, but the Browns were not sure why this was happening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then, nature intervened with a catastrophe. On the last weekend of May 1996, four days of cold, rain and snow stretched east and west from Colorado to Iowa and north and south from North Dakota to Oklahoma. According to the National Weather Service, this was a freak May storm that had only occurred once before – in 1968.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Ordinarily, rain and cold wouldn’t seem like much of a threat,” Bomberger Brown explains. “Swallows can go for four days without eating – but they will starve and start dying on the fifth day.” Cliff swallows usually feed when insects fly, but that doesn’t happen in cold, wet weather.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cold, wet and starving, about 70% of the cliff swallow population died on the fifth day. The Browns collected 1,856 dead swallows in the Nebraska study area. She estimates that throughout the region, hundreds of thousands of birds died. But not all the cliff swallows were wiped out. Some survived. It was a puzzle the Browns were determined to solve.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">The survivors’ shorter wings made them more acrobatic, like a fighter plane.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Measuring each dead bird and comparing them to the birds that remained, the Browns made a surprising discovery. The birds that died had shorter bodies and longer asymmetrical wings. But the birds that lived had larger bodies and shorter wings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">The survivors’ shorter wings made them more acrobatic, like a fighter plane. They were able to twist and turn, dodging oncoming traffic, especially larger vehicles like SUVs and Mac trucks. The road kill birds had been less agile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_63763\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 303px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-63763 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Cliff-Swallow_Comparison_2-379x253.jpg\" alt=\"Cliff Swallow_Comparison_2\" width=\"303\" height=\"202\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Comparison of cliff swallow wingspans. Swallows with longer wings (top) are more prone to be hit by cars than those with shorter wings (bottom). Photo credit: Gary Hochman\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To understand how the swallows had changed, the Browns reviewed all the data they had collected on living swallows, those birds killed by cars, and those killed by the extreme weather. A clear pattern emerged. Both the birds killed by cars and those killed by the storm had long, asymmetrical wings. The survivors all had wings that averaged one half inch shorter. That’s a significant difference on a wingspan of four and a half inches. And it made all the difference between life and death.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Browns concluded that over the course of just a few decades, the wingspan of cliff swallows became shorter as an adaptation to avoiding oncoming traffic. \u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">The wingspan of cliff swallows became shorter as an adaptation to avoiding oncoming traffic.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Almost overnight, the natural calamity of the extreme weather revealed an evolutionary adaptation in cliff swallows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bomberger Brown chalks it up to an oddity in natural selection – not because the swallows changed – but how fast they evolved to adapt to a major transformation of their habitat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Typically, you expect population genetics to take millions of years. And while cliff swallows didn’t turn into different species, they have evolved through natural selection in a surprisingly short time – just 30 years. “In evolutionary terms, 30 years is an instant in time,” says Bomberger Brown. Yet her study shows that human development of roads and bridges across America have triggered natural selection to significantly modify the body structure and wing length of cliff swallows. \u003cins cite=\"mailto:Lisa%20Landers\" datetime=\"2013-11-12T15:31\">\u003c/ins>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, swallows thrive alongside people who literally zip by the birds. In a strange twist of fate, the survival of cliff swallows has been aided by the network of concrete highway overpasses and bridges that span North America.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Find out how people and roadway designs have favored the survival and evolution of cliff swallows across America. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1443823848,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":26,"wordCount":1584},"headData":{"title":"How People Drove an Evolution in Cliff Swallows | KQED","description":"Find out how people and roadway designs have favored the survival and evolution of cliff swallows across America. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"50959 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=50959","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/12/05/how-people-drove-an-evolution-in-cliff-swallows/","disqusTitle":"How People Drove an Evolution in Cliff Swallows","path":"/quest/50959/how-people-drove-an-evolution-in-cliff-swallows","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_63736\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-63736 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/MaryBB_IMG_8975-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"MaryBB_IMG_8975\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">University of Nebraska ornithologist Mary Bomberger Brown measures the wingspan of a cliff swallow. Photo credit: Gary Hochman\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">When the worlds of nature and people converge, nature is often endangered. But in a strange twist, the manmade world of highways has favored the survival of \u003ca href=\"http://birds.audubon.org/birds/cliff-swallow\">cliff swallows\u003c/a>, according to University of Nebraska ornithologist Mary Bomberger Brown. “Natural selection and human development have created a better bird,” she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_63746\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 191px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-63746 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0033a-235x253.jpg\" alt=\"DSC_0033a\" width=\"191\" height=\"205\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cliff swallows are migratory birds that live in large colonies. Photo credit: Mary Bomberger Brown\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Bomberger Brown's bold conclusion is based on her \u003ca href=\"http://download.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/PIIS0960982213001942.pdf\">30-year study of cliff swallows\u003c/a> – one of the longest running evolution studies in the world. Cliff swallows are North American migratory birds. From March to September, they nest and breed in colonies ranging from Canada to Mexico. In winter, they migrate to Chile, Argentina and Brazil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each year during the last three decades, Bomberger Brown and her colleague, Charles Brown of the University of Tulsa, have been conducting a detailed study of cliff swallow life along the roadways and waterways of western Nebraska near Lake McConaughy. Their findings show how natural conditions and human expansion have affected the birds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We found that the swallows’ wings and body changed significantly,” said Bomberger Brown. “The question was – why?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Browns never set out to conduct an evolution study. In 1982, they began studying bird behavior on a premise related to the old English proverb ‘\u003cem>birds of a feather flock together.’ \u003c/em>When the study began, the big question in behavioral ecology was, why do animals live in groups? Why are they social?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bomberger Brown explains, “Cliff swallows are one of the most social birds in North America. They all live together in large colonies.” The colonies are a natural survival strategy. Swallows are aerial insectivores, meaning they eat insects that they catch in flight. They bugs they catch fly in swarms, including mosquitoes, flies, midges, and leafhoppers. “If you live in a big community like swallows do, they share information – following groups of birds to the location of food, so they can feed more efficiently,” said Bomberger Brown.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_63742\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 260px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-63742 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/IMG_0356-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"IMG_0356\" width=\"260\" height=\"195\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cliff swallows build nests from globs of mud they deposit by the beak full. Photo credit: Mary Bomberger Brown\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>By nature, cliff swallows build their jug-shaped nests on the sides of cliffs or bluffs, as protection from birds of prey and snakes. They’re always close to water because the swallows build their nests from globs of mud they collect by the beak full. \u003cins cite=\"mailto:Lisa%20Landers\" datetime=\"2013-11-12T14:59\">\u003c/ins>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Browns began studying the swallows, most of their nests lined the bluffs along the shoreline of Lake McConaughy. In a 90 by 30 mile area, the Browns check around 80 active colonies each year. Each nest holds\u003cins cite=\"mailto:Lisa%20Landers\" datetime=\"2013-11-12T14:57\"> \u003c/ins>a pair of adults and 3-4 chicks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The average colony contains at least2,200 birds. But one colony is enormous – 6,000 nests – or about 34,000 swallows\u003cspan style=\"color: #008000\">. \u003c/span>During the long-term study, Bomberger Brown has examined 317,000 cliff swallows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But soon after their study began, Bomberger Brown began finding that many of the cliff nests were abandoned. So, where did the birds move? Driving from one site to the next, she noticed a radical shift in the birds’ nesting preference. The swallows were forming new nesting colonies in the most unlikely places; beneath highway overpasses and bridges. The Browns wondered why this was happening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_64200\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 315px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-64200 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Cliff-Swallow-Nests-on-Bridge_IMG_0365-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Cliff Swallow Nests on Bridge_IMG_0365\" width=\"315\" height=\"177\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cliff swallow nests under a highway bridge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>By chance, their study coincided with a sweeping change in roadway design. A nationwide boom in highway and interstate construction was replacing old wooden trestle bridges with new concrete bridges and overpasses. Bomberger Brown soon realized that the swallows abandoned nesting on cliffs of loose, crumbly sandstone in favor of firm concrete structures that offered overhangs sheltering the birds from the elements.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We built them a better cliff, says Bomberger Brown, “and the birds flocked to them.” As the highways, expanded east and west, the birds followed suit. “You can now see them across the country,” she adds. “They’ve just followed people in their roadways, so humans have actually expanded their range – from ocean to ocean.” To track the birds, the Browns placed metal leg bands on the swallows to identify them. And to learn how the birds compare, they capture the birds to measure their bodies, beaks, wings, feet, and tails.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And as roadways spread, so did agriculture and insects. “It’s a mutualistic relationship,” explains Bomberger Brown. “We’ve given them more food. We’ve given them places to nest. The birds provide pest control. They live with us and they’ve become part of our landscape.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But their new homes came with a risk. The highways were full of cars, trucks and RVs. “It’s an environment that can threaten their survival,” says Bomberger Brown. Soon, traveling up and down the highway, they found birds killed by cars. Examining each swallow, they measured the bodies and wings of each bird.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At first, they found about 20-40 road kill swallows. Ironically, with each year’s survey, the number of dead birds on the road was decreasing – at the same time that traffic and the size of cars were increasing. It was a curious finding, but the Browns were not sure why this was happening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then, nature intervened with a catastrophe. On the last weekend of May 1996, four days of cold, rain and snow stretched east and west from Colorado to Iowa and north and south from North Dakota to Oklahoma. According to the National Weather Service, this was a freak May storm that had only occurred once before – in 1968.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Ordinarily, rain and cold wouldn’t seem like much of a threat,” Bomberger Brown explains. “Swallows can go for four days without eating – but they will starve and start dying on the fifth day.” Cliff swallows usually feed when insects fly, but that doesn’t happen in cold, wet weather.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cold, wet and starving, about 70% of the cliff swallow population died on the fifth day. The Browns collected 1,856 dead swallows in the Nebraska study area. She estimates that throughout the region, hundreds of thousands of birds died. But not all the cliff swallows were wiped out. Some survived. It was a puzzle the Browns were determined to solve.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">The survivors’ shorter wings made them more acrobatic, like a fighter plane.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Measuring each dead bird and comparing them to the birds that remained, the Browns made a surprising discovery. The birds that died had shorter bodies and longer asymmetrical wings. But the birds that lived had larger bodies and shorter wings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">The survivors’ shorter wings made them more acrobatic, like a fighter plane. They were able to twist and turn, dodging oncoming traffic, especially larger vehicles like SUVs and Mac trucks. The road kill birds had been less agile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_63763\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 303px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-63763 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Cliff-Swallow_Comparison_2-379x253.jpg\" alt=\"Cliff Swallow_Comparison_2\" width=\"303\" height=\"202\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Comparison of cliff swallow wingspans. Swallows with longer wings (top) are more prone to be hit by cars than those with shorter wings (bottom). Photo credit: Gary Hochman\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To understand how the swallows had changed, the Browns reviewed all the data they had collected on living swallows, those birds killed by cars, and those killed by the extreme weather. A clear pattern emerged. Both the birds killed by cars and those killed by the storm had long, asymmetrical wings. The survivors all had wings that averaged one half inch shorter. That’s a significant difference on a wingspan of four and a half inches. And it made all the difference between life and death.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Browns concluded that over the course of just a few decades, the wingspan of cliff swallows became shorter as an adaptation to avoiding oncoming traffic. \u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">The wingspan of cliff swallows became shorter as an adaptation to avoiding oncoming traffic.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Almost overnight, the natural calamity of the extreme weather revealed an evolutionary adaptation in cliff swallows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bomberger Brown chalks it up to an oddity in natural selection – not because the swallows changed – but how fast they evolved to adapt to a major transformation of their habitat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Typically, you expect population genetics to take millions of years. And while cliff swallows didn’t turn into different species, they have evolved through natural selection in a surprisingly short time – just 30 years. “In evolutionary terms, 30 years is an instant in time,” says Bomberger Brown. Yet her study shows that human development of roads and bridges across America have triggered natural selection to significantly modify the body structure and wing length of cliff swallows. \u003cins cite=\"mailto:Lisa%20Landers\" datetime=\"2013-11-12T15:31\">\u003c/ins>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, swallows thrive alongside people who literally zip by the birds. In a strange twist of fate, the survival of cliff swallows has been aided by the network of concrete highway overpasses and bridges that span North America.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/50959/how-people-drove-an-evolution-in-cliff-swallows","authors":["10297"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_9"],"tags":["quest_68","quest_326","quest_340","quest_12458","quest_1032","quest_12269","quest_12461","quest_3679","quest_12463","quest_12462","quest_12354","quest_12373","quest_3792","quest_12459","quest_3331","quest_12460"],"featImg":"quest_64159","label":"quest"},"quest_33061":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_33061","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"33061","score":null,"sort":[1332173682000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"the-rise-of-the-superweed","title":"Round Up Rebels: The Rise of the Superweed","publishDate":1332173682,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33062\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/19/the-rise-of-the-superweed/cotton/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33062\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cotton.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Cotton\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33062\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cotton.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cotton-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Overuse of Round Up on GM crops like this cotton have led to Round Up-resistant weeds.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>No, this isn’t a story about a new Cheech and Chong movie. What I’m referring to are herbicide-resistant weeds. And in particular, weeds resistant to the herbicide every Green loves to hate, Round Up (or glyphosate).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got to thinking about this because of a recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/03/07/147656157/farmers-face-tough-choice-on-ways-to-fight-new-strains-of-weeds?ft=1&f=1001\">story aired by NPR\u003c/a> on the rise of Round Up-resistant weeds. These things are getting to be a real pain for farmers growing crops genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide Round Up (see the video below).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many anti-GMO folks were worried about this happening. They were concerned about something called horizontal gene transfer where an added gene moves from one plant to another. They were worried this Round Up-ready weed would then go on to become a dangerous pest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They were only partly right. The weeds are indeed resistant to Round Up but they aren’t Round Up ready. None of the weeds tested so far managed to get a hold of the added gene; it stayed put in the GM plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, these weeds became resistant the old-fashioned way: through natural selection. This is the same thing that makes bugs resistant to pesticides and cancers resistant to chemotherapy.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable align=\"right\">\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Pigweed.jpg\">\u003cbr>\u003cfont size=\"-1\" color=\"#999999\">This Pigweed didn't need outside\u003cbr>genes to be resistant to Round Up.\u003cbr>It pulled it off all on its own.\u003c/font>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>There were always a few individuals in the weed species that happened to be resistant to Round Up. Spraying lots of Round Up killed all the sensitive weeds leaving the resistant ones behind. These resistant ones were the only ones that went on to have seedlings so they essentially founded a new population. Now this species of weed is mostly Round Up resistant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But again, not because of horizontal gene transfer. These weeds managed to become resistant in other ways. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Round Up works by binding to a specific enzyme and keeping it from working. One way some of the weeds became resistant was to make lots of extra enzyme. The excess enzyme sopped up the Round Up leaving enough behind to do their job. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another way to become resistant is to neutralize most of the Round Up. One way plants have managed this is by shuttling the herbicide to vacuoles where it is harmless. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And there are other ways that I won’t go into. But none of them involve a gene traveling from crop to weed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So this is really just an everyday story about the ongoing battle between pest and farmer, doctor and disease and not one about the dangers of GM crops. If you overuse a pesticide, antibiotic, antiviral, medicine, etc., nature will find a way to get around it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, some anti-GMO folks should be a bit happy. Some people opposed these particular GM crops because they were worried about the safety of Round Up. Having weeds resistant to Round Up means that a whole lot less will get used. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course this doesn’t help at all if you are against GM crops because they are GM. There are plenty of new GM crops in the pipeline, meaning more and more of them will probably be planted in the future. But at least there will be less Round Up sprayed (if that is what bothers you).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsu4WKQ9g18]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Definitely a hot topic in the farming world\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More Information:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/GWC/GWC-1.pdf\">Facts About Glyphosate-Resistant Weeds\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/jf203472s\">Vacuolar Glyphosate-Sequestration Correlates with Glyphosate Resistance in Ryegrass (Lolium spp.) from Australia, South America, and Europe: A 31P NMR Investigation\u003c/a> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ps.1539/abstract\">Weed species shifts in glyphosate-resistant crops\u003cbr>\n\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"As any biologist would have predicted, weeds are becoming resistant to the herbicide Round Up. But they aren't resistant because they took up a gene that had been added to the GM crops. They are resistant because that is what happens when you overuse an herbicide.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1332966083,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":true,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":21,"wordCount":621},"headData":{"title":"Round Up Rebels: The Rise of the Superweed | KQED","description":"As any biologist would have predicted, weeds are becoming resistant to the herbicide Round Up. But they aren't resistant because they took up a gene that had been added to the GM crops. They are resistant because that is what happens when you overuse an herbicide.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"33061 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=33061","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/19/the-rise-of-the-superweed/","disqusTitle":"Round Up Rebels: The Rise of the Superweed","path":"/quest/33061/the-rise-of-the-superweed","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33062\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/19/the-rise-of-the-superweed/cotton/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33062\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cotton.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Cotton\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33062\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cotton.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cotton-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Overuse of Round Up on GM crops like this cotton have led to Round Up-resistant weeds.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>No, this isn’t a story about a new Cheech and Chong movie. What I’m referring to are herbicide-resistant weeds. And in particular, weeds resistant to the herbicide every Green loves to hate, Round Up (or glyphosate).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got to thinking about this because of a recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/03/07/147656157/farmers-face-tough-choice-on-ways-to-fight-new-strains-of-weeds?ft=1&f=1001\">story aired by NPR\u003c/a> on the rise of Round Up-resistant weeds. These things are getting to be a real pain for farmers growing crops genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide Round Up (see the video below).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many anti-GMO folks were worried about this happening. They were concerned about something called horizontal gene transfer where an added gene moves from one plant to another. They were worried this Round Up-ready weed would then go on to become a dangerous pest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They were only partly right. The weeds are indeed resistant to Round Up but they aren’t Round Up ready. None of the weeds tested so far managed to get a hold of the added gene; it stayed put in the GM plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, these weeds became resistant the old-fashioned way: through natural selection. This is the same thing that makes bugs resistant to pesticides and cancers resistant to chemotherapy.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable align=\"right\">\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Pigweed.jpg\">\u003cbr>\u003cfont size=\"-1\" color=\"#999999\">This Pigweed didn't need outside\u003cbr>genes to be resistant to Round Up.\u003cbr>It pulled it off all on its own.\u003c/font>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>There were always a few individuals in the weed species that happened to be resistant to Round Up. Spraying lots of Round Up killed all the sensitive weeds leaving the resistant ones behind. These resistant ones were the only ones that went on to have seedlings so they essentially founded a new population. Now this species of weed is mostly Round Up resistant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But again, not because of horizontal gene transfer. These weeds managed to become resistant in other ways. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Round Up works by binding to a specific enzyme and keeping it from working. One way some of the weeds became resistant was to make lots of extra enzyme. The excess enzyme sopped up the Round Up leaving enough behind to do their job. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another way to become resistant is to neutralize most of the Round Up. One way plants have managed this is by shuttling the herbicide to vacuoles where it is harmless. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And there are other ways that I won’t go into. But none of them involve a gene traveling from crop to weed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So this is really just an everyday story about the ongoing battle between pest and farmer, doctor and disease and not one about the dangers of GM crops. If you overuse a pesticide, antibiotic, antiviral, medicine, etc., nature will find a way to get around it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, some anti-GMO folks should be a bit happy. Some people opposed these particular GM crops because they were worried about the safety of Round Up. Having weeds resistant to Round Up means that a whole lot less will get used. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course this doesn’t help at all if you are against GM crops because they are GM. There are plenty of new GM crops in the pipeline, meaning more and more of them will probably be planted in the future. But at least there will be less Round Up sprayed (if that is what bothers you).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/lsu4WKQ9g18'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/lsu4WKQ9g18'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Definitely a hot topic in the farming world\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More Information:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/GWC/GWC-1.pdf\">Facts About Glyphosate-Resistant Weeds\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/jf203472s\">Vacuolar Glyphosate-Sequestration Correlates with Glyphosate Resistance in Ryegrass (Lolium spp.) from Australia, South America, and Europe: A 31P NMR Investigation\u003c/a> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ps.1539/abstract\">Weed species shifts in glyphosate-resistant crops\u003cbr>\n\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/33061/the-rise-of-the-superweed","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_1196","quest_10822","quest_3679","quest_10824","quest_13202","quest_10823","quest_10821","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_33062","label":"quest"},"quest_19237":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_19237","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"19237","score":null,"sort":[1307373792000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"dominant-isn%e2%80%99t-always-common","title":"Dominant isn't Always Common","publishDate":1307373792,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/EyeColorMap21.jpg\">\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Just because a trait is dominant does not mean it is common. Each color represents different levels of light eyes. Blue=80%+, teal=50-79%, olive=20-49%, brown=1-19%, black=none. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Light_eye_coloration_map.png\">Dark Tichondrias\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the first things we’re taught in genetics is that some traits are dominant and others are recessive. And that the dominant traits trump the recessive ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So brown eyes trump blue eyes. And red hair is always trumped by other hair colors. And so on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From this, people often jump to the conclusion that the dominant trait is also the most common one. This isn’t always the case and there is no reason it should be.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether or not a trait is common has to do with how many copies of that gene version (or allele) are in the population. It has little or nothing to do with whether the trait is dominant or recessive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s take eye color as an example. The decision on whether to have brown eyes or not is pretty much controlled by a single gene, \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=76\">OCA2\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\u003ca href=\"https://www.kqed.org/futureofyou/tag/genetics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">More on genetics\u003c/a>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>We can think of OCA2 as having two versions, brown and not-brown. The brown allele of OCA2 is dominant over the not-brown allele.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nearly everyone in most of Africa has brown eyes. This isn’t because brown eyes are dominant over blue and green. Instead, it is because there are mostly brown alleles of OCA2 in the African population.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Northern Europe is a different story. In some parts of the continent, over 80% of the population has lighter colored eyes. Here the not-brown allele is more common even though it is recessive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now this allele isn’t exclusive, there are still brown-eyed folks in northern Europe. So why don’t their brown eyes dominate over time? Because in populations, dominant isn’t dominant over other people’s recessive gene versions. Your brown eyes can’t affect my kids’ eye color unless we get married.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s do a thought experiment to make this clearer. To simplify things we’ll call brown eyes B and not-brown eyes b.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/AlleleGeneration.jpg\">\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Without some sort of outside pressure, the ratio of blue to brown eyes stays the same.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, you will have brown eyes if you are BB or Bb and blue or green if you are bb. This is because brown (B) is dominant over blue and green (b).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine we start out with eleven bb people and one Bb person. The Bb person has 4 kids with one of the bb folks and each bb couple also has 4 kids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Using regular old Mendelian genetics, we'll have 20 bb people from our 5 bb couples and 2 Bb and 2 bb from our mixed couple. This is 2 people with brown eyes and 22 people with blue or green. The same ratio as we started with. Brown did not become more common.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now these folks all pair up randomly and have 4 kids each. Since we aren't going to allow incest, the Bb folks will find a bb for a mate. If they have 4 kids each, then we have 44 bb and 4 Bb. Again the same eleven blue to one brown ratio. Whether an allele is dominant or not does not affect how common a trait is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now of course traits can \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=411\">become more common\u003c/a> over time. The changes just don’t have anything to do with whether the trait is dominant or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If brown eyes gave an advantage, then it would start to become more common. Brown eyes would also become more common if a bunch of Africans moved in or many of the blue-eyed people were killed for some reason (witch burning?). And there are other ways too of getting more brown eyes in Europe. Or more blue eyes in Africa (see South Africa for example).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dominant does not mean common. Which in some ways is a good thing considering diseases like Huntington’s disease that are dominant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=227\">Why some gene versions are dominant and some are recessive.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"A common genetic misconception is that dominant means common. Here Dr. Starr explains why dominant and recessive doesn't matter for how common a trait is.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1542232003,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":22,"wordCount":701},"headData":{"title":"Dominant isn't Always Common | KQED","description":"A common genetic misconception is that dominant means common. Here Dr. Starr explains why dominant and recessive doesn't matter for how common a trait is.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"19237 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/06/06/dominant-isn%e2%80%99t-always-common/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/06/dominant-isn%e2%80%99t-always-common/","disqusTitle":"Dominant isn't Always Common","path":"/quest/19237/dominant-isn%e2%80%99t-always-common","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/EyeColorMap21.jpg\">\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Just because a trait is dominant does not mean it is common. Each color represents different levels of light eyes. Blue=80%+, teal=50-79%, olive=20-49%, brown=1-19%, black=none. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Light_eye_coloration_map.png\">Dark Tichondrias\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the first things we’re taught in genetics is that some traits are dominant and others are recessive. And that the dominant traits trump the recessive ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So brown eyes trump blue eyes. And red hair is always trumped by other hair colors. And so on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From this, people often jump to the conclusion that the dominant trait is also the most common one. This isn’t always the case and there is no reason it should be.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether or not a trait is common has to do with how many copies of that gene version (or allele) are in the population. It has little or nothing to do with whether the trait is dominant or recessive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s take eye color as an example. The decision on whether to have brown eyes or not is pretty much controlled by a single gene, \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=76\">OCA2\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\u003ca href=\"https://www.kqed.org/futureofyou/tag/genetics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">More on genetics\u003c/a>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>We can think of OCA2 as having two versions, brown and not-brown. The brown allele of OCA2 is dominant over the not-brown allele.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nearly everyone in most of Africa has brown eyes. This isn’t because brown eyes are dominant over blue and green. Instead, it is because there are mostly brown alleles of OCA2 in the African population.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Northern Europe is a different story. In some parts of the continent, over 80% of the population has lighter colored eyes. Here the not-brown allele is more common even though it is recessive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now this allele isn’t exclusive, there are still brown-eyed folks in northern Europe. So why don’t their brown eyes dominate over time? Because in populations, dominant isn’t dominant over other people’s recessive gene versions. Your brown eyes can’t affect my kids’ eye color unless we get married.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s do a thought experiment to make this clearer. To simplify things we’ll call brown eyes B and not-brown eyes b.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/AlleleGeneration.jpg\">\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Without some sort of outside pressure, the ratio of blue to brown eyes stays the same.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, you will have brown eyes if you are BB or Bb and blue or green if you are bb. This is because brown (B) is dominant over blue and green (b).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine we start out with eleven bb people and one Bb person. The Bb person has 4 kids with one of the bb folks and each bb couple also has 4 kids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Using regular old Mendelian genetics, we'll have 20 bb people from our 5 bb couples and 2 Bb and 2 bb from our mixed couple. This is 2 people with brown eyes and 22 people with blue or green. The same ratio as we started with. Brown did not become more common.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now these folks all pair up randomly and have 4 kids each. Since we aren't going to allow incest, the Bb folks will find a bb for a mate. If they have 4 kids each, then we have 44 bb and 4 Bb. Again the same eleven blue to one brown ratio. Whether an allele is dominant or not does not affect how common a trait is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now of course traits can \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=411\">become more common\u003c/a> over time. The changes just don’t have anything to do with whether the trait is dominant or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If brown eyes gave an advantage, then it would start to become more common. Brown eyes would also become more common if a bunch of Africans moved in or many of the blue-eyed people were killed for some reason (witch burning?). And there are other ways too of getting more brown eyes in Europe. Or more blue eyes in Africa (see South Africa for example).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dominant does not mean common. Which in some ways is a good thing considering diseases like Huntington’s disease that are dominant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=227\">Why some gene versions are dominant and some are recessive.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/19237/dominant-isn%e2%80%99t-always-common","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_3451","quest_227","quest_3549","quest_1188","quest_3586","quest_1193","quest_3588","quest_3589","quest_3679","quest_3733"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. 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