Pregnant Women Face Big Questions With Cheaper DNA Sequencing
Sequencing Within Reach
Patient-Specific DNA Sequencing Finally Paying Off
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Barry Starr","firstName":"Dr. Barry","lastName":"Starr","slug":"dr-barry-starr","email":"bstarr@thetech.org","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"Dr. Barry Starr (\u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/geneticsboy\">@geneticsboy\u003c/a>) is a Geneticist-in-Residence at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose, CA and runs their Stanford at The Tech program. The program is part of an ongoing collaboration between the \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.stanford.edu/\">Stanford Department of Genetics\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a>. Together these two partners created the \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/permanent/index.php?sGalKey=gtwt&galKey=lt\">Genetics: Technology with a Twist\u003c/a> exhibition.\r\n\r\nYou can also see \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/author/dr-barry-starr/\">additional posts by Barry at KQED Science\u003c/a>, and read his \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/dr-barry-starr/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4a5680e4c642ea0f0f3041af16018969?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":"geneticsboy","facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"science","roles":["author"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["subscriber"]}],"headData":{"title":"Dr. Barry Starr | 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630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some of my ancestors (and maybe yours) before we wiped them out.\u003cbr>Image courtesy of Victuallers, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of the more interesting things to come out of all the cheaper, more robust DNA sequencing technology has been our deeper understanding of human history. Now that we can get a pretty good read from 30,000 year old Neanderthal DNA, we can tell that humans and Neanderthals had babies together. The key to figuring this out was the fact that some human ancestors had more opportunity to hook up with Neanderthals than did others.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See, around one million or so years ago, there wasn’t a lot of difference between a human and a Neanderthal. We were one big happy species living in Africa. Then, maybe 800,000-900,000 years ago, two of these groups became separated from one another. Each group built up changes in their DNA so that they gradually became two separate species. One group stayed in Africa and became our ancestors while the other group, who became Neanderthals, left Africa through the Middle East and spread across Europe and Asia. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now at this point these two groups still shared a lot of the same DNA. After all, they started from the same pool of DNA in the relatively recent past. If they all came back together and started having kids together, we wouldn’t be able to easily tell there had been interbreeding. We would see a lot of Neanderthal DNA in human DNA, but it would be very tricky to distinguish DNA that we originally shared from recently reintroduced Neanderthal DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reason we can more easily see that there was interbreeding is because of another group of Africans that decided to leave Africa via the Middle East. These folks left somewhere between 120,000 and 60,000 years ago and stumbled across the Neanderthals already out there in the world. This group of Africans eventually supplanted the Neanderthals and went on to become Europeans, Asians, Native Americans and everyone else out there (except for the Africans who stayed behind).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A couple of years back, scientists were able to get a good read of a few Neanderthals’ DNA. They then compared this DNA to lots of other people’s DNA. What they found was that Africans and Neanderthals shared less DNA than did Neanderthals and everyone else. They interpret this result to mean that Africans and Neanderthals never had the chance to breed while the ancestors of the rest of humanity and Neanderthals did.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this all means is that we can see the Neanderthal in some of us because only some of our ancestors had kids with Neanderthals. If this weren’t the case, then we wouldn’t be able to easily tell that interbreeding had happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course now that we have good evidence for this, people are trying to link weird, mostly European traits with Neanderthals. For example, there is a whole lot of chatter out on the web that Rh negative blood comes from Neanderthals. While this may be true, there isn’t any real evidence to support it. That part of Neanderthal DNA has yet to be sequenced. (Although we do know that at least some of them had O type blood which isn’t surprising since it probably \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask342\">arose at least one million years\u003c/a> ago when we were all still one big happy species.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another idea is that red hair came from Neanderthals. Again, maybe, but there isn’t any evidence yet to support it. At least one Neanderthal did have red hair but he got it from a DNA difference not seen in people. In other words, there is evidence to support that Neanderthals had red hair too but not that we got it from them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What our ancestors apparently got from Neanderthals (besides a good time) was immunity genes to help them survive. When our ancestors burst out of Africa, they encountered germs they had never seen before (think Native Americans and smallpox). The Neanderthals had adapted to these germs and so were more resistant to them. The human-Neanderthal hybrids (Humanderthals?) would have survived better than the humans meaning they were more likely to survive. The rest is the history of people living outside of Africa.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"One of the more interesting things to come out of all the cheaper, more robust DNA sequencing technology has been our deeper understanding of human history.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1356732200,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":722},"headData":{"title":"Knowing Neanderthals | KQED","description":"One of the more interesting things to come out of all the cheaper, more robust DNA sequencing technology has been our deeper understanding of human history.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Knowing Neanderthals","datePublished":"2012-12-17T16:00:26.000Z","dateModified":"2012-12-28T22:03:20.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"47891 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=47891","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/17/knowing-neanderthals/","disqusTitle":"Knowing Neanderthals","path":"/quest/47891/knowing-neanderthals","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47892\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/17/knowing-neanderthals/neanderthalgathering/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47892\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/NeanderthalGathering.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"NeanderthalGathering\" width=\"630\" height=\"365\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47892\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/NeanderthalGathering.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/NeanderthalGathering-400x232.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some of my ancestors (and maybe yours) before we wiped them out.\u003cbr>Image courtesy of Victuallers, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of the more interesting things to come out of all the cheaper, more robust DNA sequencing technology has been our deeper understanding of human history. Now that we can get a pretty good read from 30,000 year old Neanderthal DNA, we can tell that humans and Neanderthals had babies together. The key to figuring this out was the fact that some human ancestors had more opportunity to hook up with Neanderthals than did others.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See, around one million or so years ago, there wasn’t a lot of difference between a human and a Neanderthal. We were one big happy species living in Africa. Then, maybe 800,000-900,000 years ago, two of these groups became separated from one another. Each group built up changes in their DNA so that they gradually became two separate species. One group stayed in Africa and became our ancestors while the other group, who became Neanderthals, left Africa through the Middle East and spread across Europe and Asia. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now at this point these two groups still shared a lot of the same DNA. After all, they started from the same pool of DNA in the relatively recent past. If they all came back together and started having kids together, we wouldn’t be able to easily tell there had been interbreeding. We would see a lot of Neanderthal DNA in human DNA, but it would be very tricky to distinguish DNA that we originally shared from recently reintroduced Neanderthal DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reason we can more easily see that there was interbreeding is because of another group of Africans that decided to leave Africa via the Middle East. These folks left somewhere between 120,000 and 60,000 years ago and stumbled across the Neanderthals already out there in the world. This group of Africans eventually supplanted the Neanderthals and went on to become Europeans, Asians, Native Americans and everyone else out there (except for the Africans who stayed behind).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A couple of years back, scientists were able to get a good read of a few Neanderthals’ DNA. They then compared this DNA to lots of other people’s DNA. What they found was that Africans and Neanderthals shared less DNA than did Neanderthals and everyone else. They interpret this result to mean that Africans and Neanderthals never had the chance to breed while the ancestors of the rest of humanity and Neanderthals did.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What this all means is that we can see the Neanderthal in some of us because only some of our ancestors had kids with Neanderthals. If this weren’t the case, then we wouldn’t be able to easily tell that interbreeding had happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course now that we have good evidence for this, people are trying to link weird, mostly European traits with Neanderthals. For example, there is a whole lot of chatter out on the web that Rh negative blood comes from Neanderthals. While this may be true, there isn’t any real evidence to support it. That part of Neanderthal DNA has yet to be sequenced. (Although we do know that at least some of them had O type blood which isn’t surprising since it probably \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask342\">arose at least one million years\u003c/a> ago when we were all still one big happy species.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another idea is that red hair came from Neanderthals. Again, maybe, but there isn’t any evidence yet to support it. At least one Neanderthal did have red hair but he got it from a DNA difference not seen in people. In other words, there is evidence to support that Neanderthals had red hair too but not that we got it from them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What our ancestors apparently got from Neanderthals (besides a good time) was immunity genes to help them survive. When our ancestors burst out of Africa, they encountered germs they had never seen before (think Native Americans and smallpox). The Neanderthals had adapted to these germs and so were more resistant to them. The human-Neanderthal hybrids (Humanderthals?) would have survived better than the humans meaning they were more likely to survive. The rest is the history of people living outside of Africa.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/47891/knowing-neanderthals","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_848","quest_3961","quest_1200","quest_11650","quest_10034","quest_13202","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_47892","label":"quest"},"quest_41121":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_41121","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"41121","score":null,"sort":[1343055649000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing","title":"Pregnant Women Face Big Questions With Cheaper DNA Sequencing","publishDate":1343055649,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41122\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/23/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing/9wkfetus/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-41122\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-41122\" title=\"9wkFetus\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/9wkFetus.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"367\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/9wkFetus.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/9wkFetus-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cheap DNA sequncing has the potential to help more children overcome genetic disease.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the very near future, a pregnant woman will be able to learn a whole lot more than she currently can about the fetus she is carrying. And she can find out in a way that poses no risk to the fetus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is obviously a good thing for fetuses with previously hidden but treatable genetic diseases and for parents of special needs children so they can prepare themselves. But it will also open wider the Pandora’s Box of ethical dilemmas that prenatal testing already presents us with.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most common ways to do prenatal testing right now -- amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) -- increases a woman's risk for miscarriage. Not a lot, but enough so that the testing shouldn't routinely be done. Basically the only time to do this kind of testing is when the risk for the fetus having a genetic problem is higher than the risk of miscarriage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is why, for example, only fetuses of older women are routinely tested for Down syndrome. Once a woman turns 35 or so, the risk for having a child with Down syndrome is higher than the risk for miscarriage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New technologies are changing this calculation so that in the near future, prenatal testing may be available for any woman who can afford it. Like I said, this holds great promise for helping parents and their children. But it also raises troubling questions about what parents might do with this information.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new technique is so much safer because unlike amniocentesis or CVS, it doesn’t mess with the fetus at all. All that is required is a blood draw from the mother. This is because a significant fraction of cell-free DNA in maternal blood comes from the fetus and because of how powerful and how cheap DNA sequencing has become.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18838674\">in 2008\u003c/a>, DNA sequencing was powerful enough to use this technique to determine whether a fetus had extra or missing chromosomes. In other words, it could be used to figure out whether the fetus had Down syndrome (an extra chromosome 21), Turner syndrome (a single X with no Y), Edwards syndrome (an extra chromosome 18) and so on. These kinds of tests are being refined and will soon be widely available.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The test is actually a pretty simple one. Scientists do lots of DNA sequencing so they get a large number of different reads from each chromosome. They then compare the numbers and look for anything out of the ordinary.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is easy to understand if you were just looking at the fetal DNA. In Down syndrome, you have three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two. If you did this kind of sequencing, you’d find 1.5 times the usual amount of chromosome 21 DNA. So if all the other chromosomes gave 100 reads, a fetus with Down syndrome would give 150 for chromosome 21.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cell-free DNA gives similar but much less pronounced results. Let’s say that the fetal DNA makes up about 19% of the total of cell-free DNA (this is a pretty typical number). When scientists compare all of the chromosomes, they will find an increased amount of chromosome 21 DNA but not as much as if they were looking just at fetal DNA. If I am doing my math right, they would get around 110 instead of 100 reads for chromosome 21. With enough DNA sequencing, this is enough to tell that the fetus has an extra chromosome 21.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41127\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/23/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing/downresults/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-41127\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-41127\" title=\"DownResults\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/DownResults.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"126\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The extra chromosome 21 DNA found in the cell free DNA of the mother\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Now DNA sequencing has become so cheap and powerful that scientists can use the same technique to get much more information about the fetus. Instead of looking at big changes like extra or missing chromosomes, they can actually look for lots and lots of specific DNA differences that can lead to disease. And even more astonishingly, the scientists in \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22763444\">this report\u003c/a> were able to read all of a fetus’ genes base by base. They can now get a complete genetic readout of the fetus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reading every letter of every gene won’t be ready for primetime in the near future but being able to look for lots of different genetic markers will. And remember, this is all without any risk to the fetus. At least not from the procedure…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This technique will allow doctors to diagnose and treat more genetic diseases earlier than ever before which will be of great benefit for some patients. For example, there are some genetic diseases whose symptoms can be completely headed off if the disease is treated early enough with dietary changes. This test will be able to help some of these people for the first time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But this kind of information is a double-edged sword. I have to wonder how parents-to-be might use it. There are already girl shortages in parts of India and China because of the selective abortion of females. And we know that \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2008/09/down-syndrome-and-abortion-rates/\">90% or so \u003c/a>of confirmed Down syndrome pregnancies end in abortion. This new test will certainly increase the number of Down syndrome abortions because so many more women will be able to find out if their fetus has an extra chromosome 21 or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is obviously wrong to terminate a pregnancy because the fetus has two X chromosomes. And many people are troubled by terminating Down syndrome pregnancies as the condition is not fatal and many people with Down syndrome can lead happy and productive lives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question is, when parents-to-be can learn even more about their fetuses, what will be the result? What if the fetus is at increased risk for getting Alzheimer’s late in life? Or having high cholesterol? Or not having blue eyes?\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"In the very near future, a pregnant woman will be able to learn a whole lot more than she currently can about the fetus she is carrying. And she can find out in a way that poses no risk to the fetus.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1344279299,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":18,"wordCount":989},"headData":{"title":"Pregnant Women Face Big Questions With Cheaper DNA Sequencing | KQED","description":"In the very near future, a pregnant woman will be able to learn a whole lot more than she currently can about the fetus she is carrying. And she can find out in a way that poses no risk to the fetus.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Pregnant Women Face Big Questions With Cheaper DNA Sequencing","datePublished":"2012-07-23T15:00:49.000Z","dateModified":"2012-08-06T18:54:59.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"41121 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=41121","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/23/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing/","disqusTitle":"Pregnant Women Face Big Questions With Cheaper DNA Sequencing","path":"/quest/41121/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41122\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/23/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing/9wkfetus/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-41122\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-41122\" title=\"9wkFetus\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/9wkFetus.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"367\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/9wkFetus.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/9wkFetus-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cheap DNA sequncing has the potential to help more children overcome genetic disease.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the very near future, a pregnant woman will be able to learn a whole lot more than she currently can about the fetus she is carrying. And she can find out in a way that poses no risk to the fetus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is obviously a good thing for fetuses with previously hidden but treatable genetic diseases and for parents of special needs children so they can prepare themselves. But it will also open wider the Pandora’s Box of ethical dilemmas that prenatal testing already presents us with.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most common ways to do prenatal testing right now -- amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) -- increases a woman's risk for miscarriage. Not a lot, but enough so that the testing shouldn't routinely be done. Basically the only time to do this kind of testing is when the risk for the fetus having a genetic problem is higher than the risk of miscarriage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is why, for example, only fetuses of older women are routinely tested for Down syndrome. Once a woman turns 35 or so, the risk for having a child with Down syndrome is higher than the risk for miscarriage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New technologies are changing this calculation so that in the near future, prenatal testing may be available for any woman who can afford it. Like I said, this holds great promise for helping parents and their children. But it also raises troubling questions about what parents might do with this information.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new technique is so much safer because unlike amniocentesis or CVS, it doesn’t mess with the fetus at all. All that is required is a blood draw from the mother. This is because a significant fraction of cell-free DNA in maternal blood comes from the fetus and because of how powerful and how cheap DNA sequencing has become.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18838674\">in 2008\u003c/a>, DNA sequencing was powerful enough to use this technique to determine whether a fetus had extra or missing chromosomes. In other words, it could be used to figure out whether the fetus had Down syndrome (an extra chromosome 21), Turner syndrome (a single X with no Y), Edwards syndrome (an extra chromosome 18) and so on. These kinds of tests are being refined and will soon be widely available.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The test is actually a pretty simple one. Scientists do lots of DNA sequencing so they get a large number of different reads from each chromosome. They then compare the numbers and look for anything out of the ordinary.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is easy to understand if you were just looking at the fetal DNA. In Down syndrome, you have three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two. If you did this kind of sequencing, you’d find 1.5 times the usual amount of chromosome 21 DNA. So if all the other chromosomes gave 100 reads, a fetus with Down syndrome would give 150 for chromosome 21.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cell-free DNA gives similar but much less pronounced results. Let’s say that the fetal DNA makes up about 19% of the total of cell-free DNA (this is a pretty typical number). When scientists compare all of the chromosomes, they will find an increased amount of chromosome 21 DNA but not as much as if they were looking just at fetal DNA. If I am doing my math right, they would get around 110 instead of 100 reads for chromosome 21. With enough DNA sequencing, this is enough to tell that the fetus has an extra chromosome 21.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_41127\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/23/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing/downresults/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-41127\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-41127\" title=\"DownResults\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/DownResults.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"126\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The extra chromosome 21 DNA found in the cell free DNA of the mother\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Now DNA sequencing has become so cheap and powerful that scientists can use the same technique to get much more information about the fetus. Instead of looking at big changes like extra or missing chromosomes, they can actually look for lots and lots of specific DNA differences that can lead to disease. And even more astonishingly, the scientists in \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22763444\">this report\u003c/a> were able to read all of a fetus’ genes base by base. They can now get a complete genetic readout of the fetus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reading every letter of every gene won’t be ready for primetime in the near future but being able to look for lots of different genetic markers will. And remember, this is all without any risk to the fetus. At least not from the procedure…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This technique will allow doctors to diagnose and treat more genetic diseases earlier than ever before which will be of great benefit for some patients. For example, there are some genetic diseases whose symptoms can be completely headed off if the disease is treated early enough with dietary changes. This test will be able to help some of these people for the first time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But this kind of information is a double-edged sword. I have to wonder how parents-to-be might use it. There are already girl shortages in parts of India and China because of the selective abortion of females. And we know that \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2008/09/down-syndrome-and-abortion-rates/\">90% or so \u003c/a>of confirmed Down syndrome pregnancies end in abortion. This new test will certainly increase the number of Down syndrome abortions because so many more women will be able to find out if their fetus has an extra chromosome 21 or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is obviously wrong to terminate a pregnancy because the fetus has two X chromosomes. And many people are troubled by terminating Down syndrome pregnancies as the condition is not fatal and many people with Down syndrome can lead happy and productive lives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question is, when parents-to-be can learn even more about their fetuses, what will be the result? What if the fetus is at increased risk for getting Alzheimer’s late in life? Or having high cholesterol? Or not having blue eyes?\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/41121/pregnant-women-face-big-questions-with-cheaper-dna-sequencing","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_12"],"tags":["quest_3961","quest_868","quest_1197","quest_11303","quest_13202","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_41122","label":"quest"},"quest_25787":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_25787","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"25787","score":null,"sort":[1318262375000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"sequencing-within-reach","title":"Sequencing Within Reach","publishDate":1318262375,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/10/sequencing-within-reach/costofgenome/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-25788\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/CostofGenome.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CostofGenome\" width=\"640\" height=\"432\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-25788\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/CostofGenome.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/CostofGenome-400x270.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>As you can see from the graph, the cost of figuring out what someone’s DNA looks like is dropping like a stone. You can get your DNA sequenced for somewhere between 10 and 20 thousand dollars. When I started \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/11/26/getting-to-know-your-dna/\">writing this blog\u003c/a> back in 2007, it would cost you around 350 thousand dollars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And it is even cheaper than this if you want to focus on just your genes. 23andMe is offering that \u003ca href=\"https://www.23andme.com/exome/\">very service\u003c/a> for less than 1,000 dollars. Your DNA is finally within your grasp! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This drop in price is great news for scientists. They can now get more DNA sequenced for less money. This is driving genetics forward at breakneck speed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This will probably also be great news for patients. For example, in the near future cancer patients will get the DNA in their tumors sequenced so they get prescribed the right medicine. We aren’t there yet, but if costs keep dropping, we will be soon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For casual consumers, though, affordable DNA sequencing is much less useful. In fact, it might even make a difficult situation worse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now we can get the results of a million or so of our bits of DNA. Some of these \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.html\">SNPs\u003c/a> are within genes and some are outside of genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These SNPs have been looked at in lots of experiments. This means we have at least some idea about how each relates to various diseases. The same won’t be true of the new data that will be made available to you. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are going to be changes in your genes that scientists haven’t seen before. And in many cases they won’t be able to tell you whether a certain change matters or not. You will end up with a bunch of differences for which there is little or no information. If you’re a worrier, this is going to cause problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s take an easy example, cystic fibrosis (CF). Most of the time CF is caused by one or more of a defined set of DNA differences in the CFTR gene. Genetic testing now looks for changes known to cause CF. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately, CFTR is a gene with a lot of changes, many of which have no effect. What this means is that many of us will have differences in our CFTR gene that haven’t been seen before. Will they cause cystic fibrosis? For many differences, we won’t know for sure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This information may ultimately be helpful for scientists if they find enough people with particular differences. But it may not be that helpful to you. In fact, if you’re a worrier, you may be unnecessarily concerned about your kids ending up with CF because of your unique version of the CFTR gene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And this is the easy example. Other diseases happen when many different gene versions all work together in a certain way. Some combinations of these gene versions will lead to disease or increased risk of disease and some won’t. If you pile on enough genes, you suddenly have so many combinations that it becomes very difficult to make any really predictions with only a few people’s DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now I think it is safe to say that with genetics, we have lots of data but little understanding. To increase our understanding of human genetics, everyone should probably throw their DNA into the ring for scientists to study. The question is when do you want to know the results of what scientists are finding. At an early stage when everything is muddled or at a more defined, later stage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe width=\"420\" height=\"315\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/5raJePXu0OQ\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The cost of figuring out what someone’s DNA looks like is dropping like a stone. For casual consumers, though, affordable DNA sequencing can be less than useful. In fact, it might even make a difficult situation worse.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1318273880,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":true,"hasChartOrMap":true,"iframeSrcs":["http://www.youtube.com/embed/5raJePXu0OQ"],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":16,"wordCount":616},"headData":{"title":"Sequencing Within Reach | KQED","description":"The cost of figuring out what someone’s DNA looks like is dropping like a stone. For casual consumers, though, affordable DNA sequencing can be less than useful. In fact, it might even make a difficult situation worse.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Sequencing Within Reach","datePublished":"2011-10-10T15:59:35.000Z","dateModified":"2011-10-10T19:11:20.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"25787 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=25787","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/10/sequencing-within-reach/","disqusTitle":"Sequencing Within Reach","path":"/quest/25787/sequencing-within-reach","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/10/sequencing-within-reach/costofgenome/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-25788\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/CostofGenome.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CostofGenome\" width=\"640\" height=\"432\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-25788\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/CostofGenome.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/CostofGenome-400x270.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>As you can see from the graph, the cost of figuring out what someone’s DNA looks like is dropping like a stone. You can get your DNA sequenced for somewhere between 10 and 20 thousand dollars. When I started \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/11/26/getting-to-know-your-dna/\">writing this blog\u003c/a> back in 2007, it would cost you around 350 thousand dollars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And it is even cheaper than this if you want to focus on just your genes. 23andMe is offering that \u003ca href=\"https://www.23andme.com/exome/\">very service\u003c/a> for less than 1,000 dollars. Your DNA is finally within your grasp! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This drop in price is great news for scientists. They can now get more DNA sequenced for less money. This is driving genetics forward at breakneck speed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This will probably also be great news for patients. For example, in the near future cancer patients will get the DNA in their tumors sequenced so they get prescribed the right medicine. We aren’t there yet, but if costs keep dropping, we will be soon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For casual consumers, though, affordable DNA sequencing is much less useful. In fact, it might even make a difficult situation worse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now we can get the results of a million or so of our bits of DNA. Some of these \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/snps.html\">SNPs\u003c/a> are within genes and some are outside of genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These SNPs have been looked at in lots of experiments. This means we have at least some idea about how each relates to various diseases. The same won’t be true of the new data that will be made available to you. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are going to be changes in your genes that scientists haven’t seen before. And in many cases they won’t be able to tell you whether a certain change matters or not. You will end up with a bunch of differences for which there is little or no information. If you’re a worrier, this is going to cause problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s take an easy example, cystic fibrosis (CF). Most of the time CF is caused by one or more of a defined set of DNA differences in the CFTR gene. Genetic testing now looks for changes known to cause CF. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately, CFTR is a gene with a lot of changes, many of which have no effect. What this means is that many of us will have differences in our CFTR gene that haven’t been seen before. Will they cause cystic fibrosis? For many differences, we won’t know for sure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This information may ultimately be helpful for scientists if they find enough people with particular differences. But it may not be that helpful to you. In fact, if you’re a worrier, you may be unnecessarily concerned about your kids ending up with CF because of your unique version of the CFTR gene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And this is the easy example. Other diseases happen when many different gene versions all work together in a certain way. Some combinations of these gene versions will lead to disease or increased risk of disease and some won’t. If you pile on enough genes, you suddenly have so many combinations that it becomes very difficult to make any really predictions with only a few people’s DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now I think it is safe to say that with genetics, we have lots of data but little understanding. To increase our understanding of human genetics, everyone should probably throw their DNA into the ring for scientists to study. The question is when do you want to know the results of what scientists are finding. At an early stage when everything is muddled or at a more defined, later stage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe width=\"420\" height=\"315\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/5raJePXu0OQ\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/25787/sequencing-within-reach","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_753","quest_3961","quest_1197","quest_1198","quest_2161","quest_2162","quest_13202","quest_10036","quest_3319"],"featImg":"quest_25788","label":"quest"},"quest_15516":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_15516","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"15516","score":null,"sort":[1309793064000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"patient-specific-dna-sequencing-finally-paying-off","title":"Patient-Specific DNA Sequencing Finally Paying Off","publishDate":1309793064,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ColorfulChromosomes1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Scientists are finally unraveling enough of the mystery of\u003cbr>human DNA to help individual patients.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the last few months, a couple of stories have come out that show the promise of the upcoming genetic revolution. In each case, doctors found a patient’s best treatment by looking at every last letter of that patient’s DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the first \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=140\">case\u003c/a>, a young boy had all the hallmarks of an immune problem but there was no conclusive diagnosis. Without knowing for sure what was wrong, doctors weren’t comfortable treating the boy with a risky bone marrow transplant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then scientists sequenced the boy’s DNA. Lo and behold there was a never-before-seen mutation in a known gene. This nailed down the diagnosis of a potentially life-threatening form of irritable bowel disease (IBD).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The doctors went ahead with the bone marrow transplant. The boy not only survived the treatment, but his symptoms cleared up as well. He is now essentially cured because he had his DNA sequenced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The second \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=142\">case \u003c/a>involves a set of boy-girl twins. They suffer from a movement disorder called dopamine-responsive dystonia (\u003ca href=\"http://www.dystoniacanada.org/about-dystonia/dopa-responsive-dystonia\">DRD\u003c/a>). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Patients with DRD are usually treated with L-dopa. This can often clear up most symptoms but didn’t seem to help these twins as much. In particular, the twin sister still suffered severe enough symptoms to greatly diminish her quality of life. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists sequenced the twins’ DNA and found out that they had a kind of DRD that responds best to both L-dopa and a medicine called 5-HTP. Once they both received this new treatment, their symptoms improved dramatically.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, the girl used to suffer from something called layngospasms that usually ended in vomiting. With the new treatment, this went away. An obvious improvement to her life!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Assuming prices keep dropping for sequencing and Congress keeps allocating money for basic research, there may come a day in the not too distant future when many more patients like these will be helped. People will have better lives because doctors can figure out what is wrong by looking at their DNA. As long as doctors have the tools they need to help patients that is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now the information is so scattered and so specialized that most doctors can’t help without a scientist’s intervention. This greatly limits the number of patients who can be helped.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Getting this whole process streamlined enough so that more than just the wealthy, connected, or lucky can benefit won’t be easy. We need to generate lots more data. But we also need to collect and organize the data so doctors can take a patient’s DNA data and translate it into the right treatment without the help of a genetic scientist. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This last part is not exciting work but is absolutely necessary if the promise of the genomic revolution is to be fully realized. Here’s hoping someone funds something like this.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe width=\"425\" height=\"349\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/jxFO-SjA-P4\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Great story about DRD and how L-dopa can help.\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.3393857 -121.8949555\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Here Dr. Starr talks about three patients who have dramatically improved lives because scientists sequenced their DNA and correctly interpreted the results. The dream of helping individual patients using data from the human genome project is finally being realized.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1309793064,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":true,"hasChartOrMap":true,"iframeSrcs":["http://www.youtube.com/embed/jxFO-SjA-P4"],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":19,"wordCount":518},"headData":{"title":"Patient-Specific DNA Sequencing Finally Paying Off | KQED","description":"Here Dr. Starr talks about three patients who have dramatically improved lives because scientists sequenced their DNA and correctly interpreted the results. The dream of helping individual patients using data from the human genome project is finally being realized.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Patient-Specific DNA Sequencing Finally Paying Off","datePublished":"2011-07-04T15:24:24.000Z","dateModified":"2011-07-04T15:24:24.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"15516 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/07/04/patient-specific-dna-sequencing-finally-paying-off/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/04/patient-specific-dna-sequencing-finally-paying-off/","disqusTitle":"Patient-Specific DNA Sequencing Finally Paying Off","path":"/quest/15516/patient-specific-dna-sequencing-finally-paying-off","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ColorfulChromosomes1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Scientists are finally unraveling enough of the mystery of\u003cbr>human DNA to help individual patients.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the last few months, a couple of stories have come out that show the promise of the upcoming genetic revolution. In each case, doctors found a patient’s best treatment by looking at every last letter of that patient’s DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the first \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=140\">case\u003c/a>, a young boy had all the hallmarks of an immune problem but there was no conclusive diagnosis. Without knowing for sure what was wrong, doctors weren’t comfortable treating the boy with a risky bone marrow transplant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then scientists sequenced the boy’s DNA. Lo and behold there was a never-before-seen mutation in a known gene. This nailed down the diagnosis of a potentially life-threatening form of irritable bowel disease (IBD).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The doctors went ahead with the bone marrow transplant. The boy not only survived the treatment, but his symptoms cleared up as well. He is now essentially cured because he had his DNA sequenced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The second \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=142\">case \u003c/a>involves a set of boy-girl twins. They suffer from a movement disorder called dopamine-responsive dystonia (\u003ca href=\"http://www.dystoniacanada.org/about-dystonia/dopa-responsive-dystonia\">DRD\u003c/a>). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Patients with DRD are usually treated with L-dopa. This can often clear up most symptoms but didn’t seem to help these twins as much. In particular, the twin sister still suffered severe enough symptoms to greatly diminish her quality of life. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists sequenced the twins’ DNA and found out that they had a kind of DRD that responds best to both L-dopa and a medicine called 5-HTP. Once they both received this new treatment, their symptoms improved dramatically.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, the girl used to suffer from something called layngospasms that usually ended in vomiting. With the new treatment, this went away. An obvious improvement to her life!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Assuming prices keep dropping for sequencing and Congress keeps allocating money for basic research, there may come a day in the not too distant future when many more patients like these will be helped. People will have better lives because doctors can figure out what is wrong by looking at their DNA. As long as doctors have the tools they need to help patients that is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now the information is so scattered and so specialized that most doctors can’t help without a scientist’s intervention. This greatly limits the number of patients who can be helped.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Getting this whole process streamlined enough so that more than just the wealthy, connected, or lucky can benefit won’t be easy. We need to generate lots more data. But we also need to collect and organize the data so doctors can take a patient’s DNA data and translate it into the right treatment without the help of a genetic scientist. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This last part is not exciting work but is absolutely necessary if the promise of the genomic revolution is to be fully realized. Here’s hoping someone funds something like this.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe width=\"425\" height=\"349\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/jxFO-SjA-P4\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Great story about DRD and how L-dopa can help.\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.3393857 -121.8949555\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/15516/patient-specific-dna-sequencing-finally-paying-off","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_848","quest_3961","quest_3962","quest_1188","quest_1197","quest_3964","quest_3971","quest_3974","quest_3980"],"featImg":"quest_15523","label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. 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But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/American-Suburb-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"13"},"link":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/American-Suburb-p1086805/","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"}},"baycurious":{"id":"baycurious","title":"Bay Curious","tagline":"Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time","info":"KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! 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And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. 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