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Source: Prabhat, LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-future-of-supercomputers\">my QUEST radio story this week\u003c/a>, we learn about how faster supercomputers will help scientists run climate simulations. One of the trickiest aspects of that is dealing with clouds. To find out why, I sat down with \u003ca href=\"http://esd.lbl.gov/about/staff/williamcollins/\">Bill Collins\u003c/a>, head of Climate Science Department at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How important are supercomputers to climate change science?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We understand the climate by making observations using satellites and ice sheets. But the only crystal ball we know about, short of a time machine, is the supercomputer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We started with by running simple climate models on supercomputers that included simulating the weather, rainfall, and carbon dioxide. In the last 20 years, the complexity of models has vastly increased. They now include ocean dynamics, glaciers, sea ice and the exchange of carbon dioxide between the ocean and the land, known as the carbon cycle. All of that has required an immense increase in computing power.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Climate models today simulate the atmosphere and carbon cycle by breaking up the planet into a grid and running the calculations in those segments, right?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right, in modern climate models, we simulate the weather every two to five minutes and then average that to see how the climate is going to change across that grid. We simulate the weather in segments that are 25 kilometers wide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our goal is model something the size of San Francisco County, which is about 10 kilometers wide. Once we get to that scale, we're going to be able to provide local projections of climate change. We're honing in, but we're not there yet. We need bigger computers to get there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other reason is we'd like a higher resolution is that we're having to make educated guesses about certain things, like clouds. And those educated guesses are a source of uncertainty. Cloud systems can be very large or very small. We don't know how they work at the large scale, but we do know how they work at the small scale. So the trick is to simulate them at the small scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What role do clouds play in the climate?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clouds stabilize the climate. They reflect sunlight, so they act like a sun shield. But they also trap heat from the Earth. They both heat and cool, but their net effect is to cool the planet. So the question is, what happens if climate change makes the cloud cover decrease or increase? Understanding how clouds will be affected by climate change has become a critical question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where clouds form in the atmosphere makes all the difference. High clouds reflect sunlight, but they're mostly very efficient blankets. Clouds low in the atmosphere aren't very good blankets. They act as a big sunscreen, reflecting energy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do climate models today treat clouds?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Models today represent clouds throughout statistical methods over large areas. That models their effect, but not really how they work. And you don't want to assume how they work now is how they'll work in the future. We want to get to a level of physical modeling of clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To do that, we need to be able to resolve them at a small scale. The current \u003ca href=\"http://www.ipcc.ch/\">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/a> projections use a 50 kilometer grid, but that's still not good enough. The scale we need to get to is about 10km or so. So once supercomputers can get us there, we'll be on a much more solid footing to predict how clouds might be affected by climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we tried to run climate models at that resolution now, it would simply take too long. The rule of thumb is that we'd like to simulate the climate a thousand times faster than it happens. So simulating three years in a day is our rule of thumb. If we increase our resolution from 50 kilometers down to 10 kilometers, that increases the computation demand by a factor of 125. At that point, you're doing 9 days in a day. We can't afford to do that and make the kind of projections that policymakers need in the next century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ClimateCA1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Climate model resolution of California. Source: LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What will we learn about California with better climate models?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Temperature changes are happening faster in the mountains than in the valley. So climate change in California is locally specific. A big questions is how much snowfall we'll get in the future. That's going to hinge on what the temperature is at the peaks of the Sierras. So knowing how fast the temperature change is going to happen at the peaks is going to make a big difference to our water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Local climate predications are really important for state and local policymakers. How should building codes be changed? How will local areas adapt? We need accuracy at the state and local level to pull off that planning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I\u003cstrong>f you can resolve clouds better in the future, will that change overall projections about climate change?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'd be shocked if they did. The physics of climate change is really basic. We're not going to get out of global warming. We know based on the projections that we've had in hand for the last 20 years that the time to act is now. The longer we wait, the harder the solutions are to avoid dangerous levels of climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What better resolution of clouds is likely to give us is a better idea of changes in rainfall. That's really important to our water supply, our forests, and our crops. Higher resolution will also give us better predictions of climate change extremes, like when droughts happen or the impact of downpours on rivers and dams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We want to know about climate change that goes bump in the night. We're concerned about abrupt climate change - the type that occurs quickly over a large region, like the melting of the permafrost. We're also worried about extreme climate change - intense, highly-localized changes like heat waves, hurricanes and tornadoes. Both of those are stressors on society and the environment. They've been difficult to simulate since we haven't had the computing power. But now, thanks to advances, we're getting there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.8077719 -122.2689661\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"As supercomputers grow, so does their energy appetite. Researchers are trying to solve that problem by using a smaller, more pervasive technology.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1366928998,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":28,"wordCount":1070},"headData":{"title":"Resolving Clouds in Climate Change Models | KQED","description":"As supercomputers grow, so does their energy appetite. Researchers are trying to solve that problem by using a smaller, more pervasive technology.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"15442 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/06/24/resolving-clouds-in-climate-change-models/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/24/resolving-clouds-in-climate-change-models/","disqusTitle":"Resolving Clouds in Climate Change Models","path":"/quest/15442/resolving-clouds-in-climate-change-models","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/climateglobe1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>How one climate model breaks the planet into a 10,242-cell\u003cbr>\nspherical geodesic grid. Source: Prabhat, LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-future-of-supercomputers\">my QUEST radio story this week\u003c/a>, we learn about how faster supercomputers will help scientists run climate simulations. One of the trickiest aspects of that is dealing with clouds. To find out why, I sat down with \u003ca href=\"http://esd.lbl.gov/about/staff/williamcollins/\">Bill Collins\u003c/a>, head of Climate Science Department at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How important are supercomputers to climate change science?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We understand the climate by making observations using satellites and ice sheets. But the only crystal ball we know about, short of a time machine, is the supercomputer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We started with by running simple climate models on supercomputers that included simulating the weather, rainfall, and carbon dioxide. In the last 20 years, the complexity of models has vastly increased. They now include ocean dynamics, glaciers, sea ice and the exchange of carbon dioxide between the ocean and the land, known as the carbon cycle. All of that has required an immense increase in computing power.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Climate models today simulate the atmosphere and carbon cycle by breaking up the planet into a grid and running the calculations in those segments, right?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right, in modern climate models, we simulate the weather every two to five minutes and then average that to see how the climate is going to change across that grid. We simulate the weather in segments that are 25 kilometers wide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our goal is model something the size of San Francisco County, which is about 10 kilometers wide. Once we get to that scale, we're going to be able to provide local projections of climate change. We're honing in, but we're not there yet. We need bigger computers to get there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other reason is we'd like a higher resolution is that we're having to make educated guesses about certain things, like clouds. And those educated guesses are a source of uncertainty. Cloud systems can be very large or very small. We don't know how they work at the large scale, but we do know how they work at the small scale. So the trick is to simulate them at the small scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What role do clouds play in the climate?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clouds stabilize the climate. They reflect sunlight, so they act like a sun shield. But they also trap heat from the Earth. They both heat and cool, but their net effect is to cool the planet. So the question is, what happens if climate change makes the cloud cover decrease or increase? Understanding how clouds will be affected by climate change has become a critical question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where clouds form in the atmosphere makes all the difference. High clouds reflect sunlight, but they're mostly very efficient blankets. Clouds low in the atmosphere aren't very good blankets. They act as a big sunscreen, reflecting energy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do climate models today treat clouds?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Models today represent clouds throughout statistical methods over large areas. That models their effect, but not really how they work. And you don't want to assume how they work now is how they'll work in the future. We want to get to a level of physical modeling of clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To do that, we need to be able to resolve them at a small scale. The current \u003ca href=\"http://www.ipcc.ch/\">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/a> projections use a 50 kilometer grid, but that's still not good enough. The scale we need to get to is about 10km or so. So once supercomputers can get us there, we'll be on a much more solid footing to predict how clouds might be affected by climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we tried to run climate models at that resolution now, it would simply take too long. The rule of thumb is that we'd like to simulate the climate a thousand times faster than it happens. So simulating three years in a day is our rule of thumb. If we increase our resolution from 50 kilometers down to 10 kilometers, that increases the computation demand by a factor of 125. At that point, you're doing 9 days in a day. We can't afford to do that and make the kind of projections that policymakers need in the next century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ClimateCA1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Climate model resolution of California. Source: LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What will we learn about California with better climate models?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Temperature changes are happening faster in the mountains than in the valley. So climate change in California is locally specific. A big questions is how much snowfall we'll get in the future. That's going to hinge on what the temperature is at the peaks of the Sierras. So knowing how fast the temperature change is going to happen at the peaks is going to make a big difference to our water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Local climate predications are really important for state and local policymakers. How should building codes be changed? How will local areas adapt? We need accuracy at the state and local level to pull off that planning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I\u003cstrong>f you can resolve clouds better in the future, will that change overall projections about climate change?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'd be shocked if they did. The physics of climate change is really basic. We're not going to get out of global warming. We know based on the projections that we've had in hand for the last 20 years that the time to act is now. The longer we wait, the harder the solutions are to avoid dangerous levels of climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What better resolution of clouds is likely to give us is a better idea of changes in rainfall. That's really important to our water supply, our forests, and our crops. Higher resolution will also give us better predictions of climate change extremes, like when droughts happen or the impact of downpours on rivers and dams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We want to know about climate change that goes bump in the night. We're concerned about abrupt climate change - the type that occurs quickly over a large region, like the melting of the permafrost. We're also worried about extreme climate change - intense, highly-localized changes like heat waves, hurricanes and tornadoes. Both of those are stressors on society and the environment. They've been difficult to simulate since we haven't had the computing power. But now, thanks to advances, we're getting there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.8077719 -122.2689661\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/15442/resolving-clouds-in-climate-change-models","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_6","quest_8"],"tags":["quest_3503","quest_13195","quest_621","quest_3526","quest_678","quest_984","quest_987","quest_1623","quest_1630","quest_13203","quest_2270","quest_3789"],"featImg":"quest_15449","label":"quest"},"quest_15321":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_15321","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"15321","score":null,"sort":[1308945604000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"supercomputing-draft","title":"Supercomputers Hit an Energy Wall","publishDate":1308945604,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/supercomputer3002.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>John Shalf of Lawrence Berkeley National Lab stands inside the Hopper supercomputer.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether its laptops or cell phones, computers are getting smaller for most of us. But for many scientists, they’re getting larger. Supercomputers have become a critical tool for analyzing complex problems like climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as supercomputers grow, so does their energy appetite. Researchers are trying to solve that problem by using a smaller, more pervasive technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Supercomputers have improved at a break-neck speed, especially if you look back to the Cray-1. In 1976, this six-foot tall tower of wires was the most powerful supercomputer the world had ever seen. It was installed at Lawrence Livermore National Lab for fusion research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you needed an icon for a supercomputer, you would use the Cray-1,” says Dag Spicer, senior curator at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.computerhistory.org/\">Computer History Museum\u003c/a>, where the computer is spending its retirement. “It blew people’s minds. It was so powerful, so fast.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, in today’s terms, “It’s roughly equivalent to a first generation iPhone from Apple,” says Spicer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=\"QUEST Audio Player\" skin=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip\" file=\"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/06/2011-06-27-quest.mp3\" ]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-future-of-supercomputers\">The Future of Supercomputers \u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>The reason we don’t play Angry Birds on a supercomputer today is thanks to something called \u003ca href=\"http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1965-Moore.html\">Moore’s Law\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Moore’s law is a predication made by Intel cofounder Gordon Moore in 1965 that the number of transistors – that is the little switches that make up a computer – the number of transistors incorporated in a chip will double approximately every 12 months,” says Spicer. Moore later amended that timeline to every 18 months.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What that means is computer chips have gotten smaller and faster at an incredible rate over the last 40 years. Which leads us to a supercomputer known as Hopper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Today's Supercomputers\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our new \u003ca href=\"http://www.nersc.gov/systems/hopper-cray-xe6/\">Cray XE6 supercomputing system\u003c/a>,” says John Shalf, a computer scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. We’re standing next to row after row of tall black computer towers inside a building in downtown Oakland. The sound of the computer’s massive cooling system is deafening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have to keep it cold or it’ll melt. We’ll have a puddle of chips on the bottom of the floor,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hopper is the eighth largest supercomputer in the world. And right now, it’s chewing on some complicated problems. “Number one here is particle accelerator design. We have fusion energy and then we also have laser plasma inertial fusion simulation,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science has just really been revolutionized by the speed of computers,” says Kathy Yelick, associate director for computing sciences at Berkeley Lab. She says scientists use Hopper to simulate everything from black holes to climate models. There’s a special term to measure this supercomputer’s power: a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS\">petaflop\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So how fast is that?” says Yelick. “Most people can do probably about one arithmetic operation per second if they’re pretty good.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now imagine asking a billion people on the planet to do one math problem per second. To get to Hopper’s speed, “we would need a million earths,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A million earths, each with a billion mathematicians – that’s how fast Hopper is. But it won’t be long before a faster model comes along. “Every four years we get a system that’s about 10 times larger than one we put in three or four years earlier” says Yelick.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Moore’s Law, those next generation supercomputers should be faster and more compact. But John Shalf says computer chips have hit a wall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The End of Moore's Law?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The problem is now we can’t make them go any faster. So we can cram more things on the chip, but if you make them go fast, it’s so hot they’ll melt.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If chips themselves aren’t faster, supercomputers will simply have to add more and more of them to increase computing power. And that comes with a very big impact on the energy use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hopper uses around 3 megawatts of electricity – about as much as 2000 homes. But future supercomputers? “Projections say that at the end of the decade, we’d be at 100 megawatts if we continue,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s enough power for a small city, about the size of Novato. The electricity bill alone would be roughly 100 million dollars a year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What that says is our current approach to doing supercomputing is dead end. And that we need to think of dramatically new ways to improve the efficiency of computing,” Shalf says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That could be done with some very familiar technology. Cell phones have computer chips inside them, but not the same chips as desktop computers.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/supercomputer-graph1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>\u003c/h6>\n\u003ch6>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cem>From Peter M. Kogge, \"ExaScale Computing Study: Technology Challenges in Achieving Exascale Systems,\" Sept. 28, 2008\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>“For as long as they’ve existed, they’ve wanted a cell phone that would last longer, be less expensive,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To do that, chips in cell phones have had to be smaller and more energy efficient. So Shalf says, why not build a supercomputer with chips that combine millions of these simple cell phone processors, specially designed for scientific jobs? In other words, use cell phone technology to make the world’s most powerful computers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re able to demonstrate an additional 80 times more energy efficiency than business as usual, and that gets us within striking distance of where we need to be to build a practical supercomputer,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead of a 100-megawatt supercomputer, it would be a three to ten megawatt computer. Whether or not it gets built depends on chipmakers like AMD and Intel, who would design the chips. But Shalf says a supercomputer with that power could make a big difference in climate change science.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It enables policymakers to have the tools they need to make important decisions that have trillion dollar consequences. And that’s why you want to build a supercomputer that’s able to do this.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Berkeley Lab hopes to use the supercomputer to better predict some of the trickier impacts of climate change – like changes in rainfall patterns, ice sheet melt and the effects of clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.8077719 -122.2689661\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"As supercomputers grow, so does their energy appetite. Researchers are trying to solve that problem by using a smaller, more pervasive technology.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1367348680,"stats":{"hasAudio":true,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":37,"wordCount":1136},"headData":{"title":"Supercomputers Hit an Energy Wall | KQED","description":"","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"15321 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/06/24/supercomputing-draft/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/24/supercomputing-draft/","disqusTitle":"Supercomputers Hit an Energy Wall","path":"/quest/15321/supercomputing-draft","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/06/2011-06-27-quest.mp3","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/supercomputer3002.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>John Shalf of Lawrence Berkeley National Lab stands inside the Hopper supercomputer.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether its laptops or cell phones, computers are getting smaller for most of us. But for many scientists, they’re getting larger. Supercomputers have become a critical tool for analyzing complex problems like climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as supercomputers grow, so does their energy appetite. Researchers are trying to solve that problem by using a smaller, more pervasive technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Supercomputers have improved at a break-neck speed, especially if you look back to the Cray-1. In 1976, this six-foot tall tower of wires was the most powerful supercomputer the world had ever seen. It was installed at Lawrence Livermore National Lab for fusion research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you needed an icon for a supercomputer, you would use the Cray-1,” says Dag Spicer, senior curator at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.computerhistory.org/\">Computer History Museum\u003c/a>, where the computer is spending its retirement. “It blew people’s minds. It was so powerful, so fast.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, in today’s terms, “It’s roughly equivalent to a first generation iPhone from Apple,” says Spicer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=\"QUEST Audio Player\" skin=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip\" file=\"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/06/2011-06-27-quest.mp3\" ]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-future-of-supercomputers\">The Future of Supercomputers \u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom: 1px dotted #cecece;height: 20px;margin-bottom: 10px\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>The reason we don’t play Angry Birds on a supercomputer today is thanks to something called \u003ca href=\"http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1965-Moore.html\">Moore’s Law\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Moore’s law is a predication made by Intel cofounder Gordon Moore in 1965 that the number of transistors – that is the little switches that make up a computer – the number of transistors incorporated in a chip will double approximately every 12 months,” says Spicer. Moore later amended that timeline to every 18 months.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What that means is computer chips have gotten smaller and faster at an incredible rate over the last 40 years. Which leads us to a supercomputer known as Hopper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Today's Supercomputers\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our new \u003ca href=\"http://www.nersc.gov/systems/hopper-cray-xe6/\">Cray XE6 supercomputing system\u003c/a>,” says John Shalf, a computer scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. We’re standing next to row after row of tall black computer towers inside a building in downtown Oakland. The sound of the computer’s massive cooling system is deafening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have to keep it cold or it’ll melt. We’ll have a puddle of chips on the bottom of the floor,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hopper is the eighth largest supercomputer in the world. And right now, it’s chewing on some complicated problems. “Number one here is particle accelerator design. We have fusion energy and then we also have laser plasma inertial fusion simulation,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science has just really been revolutionized by the speed of computers,” says Kathy Yelick, associate director for computing sciences at Berkeley Lab. She says scientists use Hopper to simulate everything from black holes to climate models. There’s a special term to measure this supercomputer’s power: a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS\">petaflop\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So how fast is that?” says Yelick. “Most people can do probably about one arithmetic operation per second if they’re pretty good.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now imagine asking a billion people on the planet to do one math problem per second. To get to Hopper’s speed, “we would need a million earths,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A million earths, each with a billion mathematicians – that’s how fast Hopper is. But it won’t be long before a faster model comes along. “Every four years we get a system that’s about 10 times larger than one we put in three or four years earlier” says Yelick.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Moore’s Law, those next generation supercomputers should be faster and more compact. But John Shalf says computer chips have hit a wall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The End of Moore's Law?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The problem is now we can’t make them go any faster. So we can cram more things on the chip, but if you make them go fast, it’s so hot they’ll melt.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If chips themselves aren’t faster, supercomputers will simply have to add more and more of them to increase computing power. And that comes with a very big impact on the energy use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hopper uses around 3 megawatts of electricity – about as much as 2000 homes. But future supercomputers? “Projections say that at the end of the decade, we’d be at 100 megawatts if we continue,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s enough power for a small city, about the size of Novato. The electricity bill alone would be roughly 100 million dollars a year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What that says is our current approach to doing supercomputing is dead end. And that we need to think of dramatically new ways to improve the efficiency of computing,” Shalf says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That could be done with some very familiar technology. Cell phones have computer chips inside them, but not the same chips as desktop computers.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/supercomputer-graph1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>\u003c/h6>\n\u003ch6>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cem>From Peter M. Kogge, \"ExaScale Computing Study: Technology Challenges in Achieving Exascale Systems,\" Sept. 28, 2008\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>“For as long as they’ve existed, they’ve wanted a cell phone that would last longer, be less expensive,” says Shalf.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To do that, chips in cell phones have had to be smaller and more energy efficient. So Shalf says, why not build a supercomputer with chips that combine millions of these simple cell phone processors, specially designed for scientific jobs? In other words, use cell phone technology to make the world’s most powerful computers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re able to demonstrate an additional 80 times more energy efficiency than business as usual, and that gets us within striking distance of where we need to be to build a practical supercomputer,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead of a 100-megawatt supercomputer, it would be a three to ten megawatt computer. Whether or not it gets built depends on chipmakers like AMD and Intel, who would design the chips. But Shalf says a supercomputer with that power could make a big difference in climate change science.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It enables policymakers to have the tools they need to make important decisions that have trillion dollar consequences. And that’s why you want to build a supercomputer that’s able to do this.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Berkeley Lab hopes to use the supercomputer to better predict some of the trickier impacts of climate change – like changes in rainfall patterns, ice sheet melt and the effects of clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.8077719 -122.2689661\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/15321/supercomputing-draft","authors":["10168"],"categories":["quest_11765","quest_8"],"tags":["quest_3503","quest_3526","quest_678","quest_984","quest_987","quest_1623","quest_1630","quest_1872","quest_13203","quest_2270","quest_13202","quest_3789"],"featImg":"quest_15324","label":"quest"},"quest_11397":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_11397","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"11397","score":null,"sort":[1294246833000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"racetrack-memory-on-the-move","title":"Racetrack Memory On the Move","publishDate":1294246833,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/gocart1.jpg\">\u003cem>Caption: A new design for comuter memory would send information shooting along wires like cars along a racetrack. Image source: \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indoor_american_go-cart_race_track.jpg\">Jina Lee\u003c/a>, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The word racetrack has quite a history in American culture. It conjures up images of horse racing, with beautiful animals, colorful spectators, cheap hot dogs, and expensive gambling. Perhaps more prominently, it brings automobiles to mind. The Ford \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T\">Model-T\u003c/a> made cars affordable, and Prohibition \u003ca href=\"http://www.library.appstate.edu/stockcar/history.html\">catalyzed the development of brawny speedsters that could outmuscle the police cruisers\u003c/a>, but it was the automobile’s marriage to the racetrack that finally transformed stock car racing into the booming phenomenon that it is today. \u003ca href=\"http://www.engadget.com/2010/12/27/ibm-makes-racetrack-memory-breakthrough-which-could-come-in-han/\">Now a team of researchers at IBM lead by Stuart Parkin\u003c/a> would like us to start associating the word with computer memory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racetrack_memory\">Racetrack Memory\u003c/a>, as the research team has coined it, is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today. In an article published in the December 24th issue of the journal Science, Parkin and collaborators have measured some key features of magnetism that bring the idea one step closer to viability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Devices today almost all store their memory using either \u003ca href=\"http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/flash-memory.htm\">FLASH\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://www.research.ibm.com/research/gmr/basics.html\">magnetic hard drives\u003c/a>. Both technologies have undergone dizzying improvements recently in storage capacity, cost, and reading and writing speed. Still, they have a few inherent drawbacks. Traditional magnetic hard drives are inexpensive and have an enormous storage capacity. However, they require moving parts, which costs a device energy and consequently battery life. FLASH memory has no moving parts, but it takes a relatively long time to write information, and FLASH continues to be more expensive than magnetic hard drives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Racetrack Memory is proposed to be a third alternative. Information would be stored magnetically in a similar manner to a magnetic hard drive. However, instead of storing the information in stationary bits on a disk, it would be stored in thin nanowires, and if the proper signals are applied, the information could be zipped through the wires from one place to another — like a car shooting down a racetrack — with no need for moving parts. IBM has big ambitions for the new memory architecture, claiming that it would enable a single portable device to hold more than 2,000 movies while running on a battery that would last for weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Particularly exciting is the fact that the basics of Racetrack Memory are becoming rapidly understood. “In the past ~5 years we have demonstrated that the physics underlying the Racetrack Memory that I proposed in 2004 or so works!” Dr. Parkin said. “Thus, there are no fundamental roadblocks to making Racetrack Memory a reality.” This is a contrast with some of the more exotic ideas out there for computer memory (see my last \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/07/29/computer-memory-poised-to-get-shock-therapy/\">blog post on multiferroics\u003c/a>, for example).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So why can’t I seem to find a media player that doesn’t conk out after half a day’s use yet? Parkin said that while the physics of Racetrack Memory architecture works, many engineering hurdles still need to be overcome. He was unwilling to put a definite time estimate on when devices might begin to show up in the marketplace. “Of course,” he joked, “if you write a large check, we can build you a prototype Racetrack Memory in just two to three years (depending on the size of the check!).”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Racetrack Memory is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1294246833,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":579},"headData":{"title":"Racetrack Memory On the Move | KQED","description":"Racetrack Memory is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"11397 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/01/05/racetrack-memory-on-the-move/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/01/05/racetrack-memory-on-the-move/","disqusTitle":"Racetrack Memory On the Move","path":"/quest/11397/racetrack-memory-on-the-move","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/gocart1.jpg\">\u003cem>Caption: A new design for comuter memory would send information shooting along wires like cars along a racetrack. Image source: \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indoor_american_go-cart_race_track.jpg\">Jina Lee\u003c/a>, Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The word racetrack has quite a history in American culture. It conjures up images of horse racing, with beautiful animals, colorful spectators, cheap hot dogs, and expensive gambling. Perhaps more prominently, it brings automobiles to mind. The Ford \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T\">Model-T\u003c/a> made cars affordable, and Prohibition \u003ca href=\"http://www.library.appstate.edu/stockcar/history.html\">catalyzed the development of brawny speedsters that could outmuscle the police cruisers\u003c/a>, but it was the automobile’s marriage to the racetrack that finally transformed stock car racing into the booming phenomenon that it is today. \u003ca href=\"http://www.engadget.com/2010/12/27/ibm-makes-racetrack-memory-breakthrough-which-could-come-in-han/\">Now a team of researchers at IBM lead by Stuart Parkin\u003c/a> would like us to start associating the word with computer memory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racetrack_memory\">Racetrack Memory\u003c/a>, as the research team has coined it, is a new idea that could compete with some of the most popular memory devices in use today. In an article published in the December 24th issue of the journal Science, Parkin and collaborators have measured some key features of magnetism that bring the idea one step closer to viability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Devices today almost all store their memory using either \u003ca href=\"http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/flash-memory.htm\">FLASH\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://www.research.ibm.com/research/gmr/basics.html\">magnetic hard drives\u003c/a>. Both technologies have undergone dizzying improvements recently in storage capacity, cost, and reading and writing speed. Still, they have a few inherent drawbacks. Traditional magnetic hard drives are inexpensive and have an enormous storage capacity. However, they require moving parts, which costs a device energy and consequently battery life. FLASH memory has no moving parts, but it takes a relatively long time to write information, and FLASH continues to be more expensive than magnetic hard drives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Racetrack Memory is proposed to be a third alternative. Information would be stored magnetically in a similar manner to a magnetic hard drive. However, instead of storing the information in stationary bits on a disk, it would be stored in thin nanowires, and if the proper signals are applied, the information could be zipped through the wires from one place to another — like a car shooting down a racetrack — with no need for moving parts. IBM has big ambitions for the new memory architecture, claiming that it would enable a single portable device to hold more than 2,000 movies while running on a battery that would last for weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Particularly exciting is the fact that the basics of Racetrack Memory are becoming rapidly understood. “In the past ~5 years we have demonstrated that the physics underlying the Racetrack Memory that I proposed in 2004 or so works!” Dr. Parkin said. “Thus, there are no fundamental roadblocks to making Racetrack Memory a reality.” This is a contrast with some of the more exotic ideas out there for computer memory (see my last \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/07/29/computer-memory-poised-to-get-shock-therapy/\">blog post on multiferroics\u003c/a>, for example).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So why can’t I seem to find a media player that doesn’t conk out after half a day’s use yet? Parkin said that while the physics of Racetrack Memory architecture works, many engineering hurdles still need to be overcome. He was unwilling to put a definite time estimate on when devices might begin to show up in the marketplace. “Of course,” he joked, “if you write a large check, we can build you a prototype Racetrack Memory in just two to three years (depending on the size of the check!).”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/11397/racetrack-memory-on-the-move","authors":["10205"],"categories":["quest_8"],"tags":["quest_678","quest_1106","quest_1436","quest_1788","quest_2358"],"featImg":"quest_11401","label":"quest"},"quest_8535":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_8535","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"8535","score":null,"sort":[1285355849000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time","title":"Scientists Manipulate Atoms in Real Time","publishDate":1285355849,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/1c_STMAnimation.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Illustration of a magnetically active iron atom under observation in the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine a future where iPods could store hundreds of thousands -- or even millions -- of songs, where smart phones could hold hundreds of Hollywood films, and where solar-powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a future that may be possible. IBM scientists in San Jose have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper describing the research was published Friday as the cover story in the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/\">Science\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To observe the behavior of individual copper and iron atoms billionths of a meter in size, the scientists had to use a “\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope\">scanning tunneling microscope\u003c/a>,” a device invented by IBM researchers in 1981.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It isn’t your typical microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/2_LothSTM.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>IBM Postdoctoral Researcher Sebastian Loth next to the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The cool thing about the scanning tunneling microscope is that you can not only see these atoms, you can move them around,” said Sebastian Loth, a postdoctoral researcher at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.almaden.ibm.com/\">IBM Almaden-Research Center\u003c/a>, and the lead author of the paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The device uses a metallic-pointed tip mounted on a robotic arm to move with atomic-scale precision next to iron and copper atoms. Iron was chosen because it’s magnetically active, even at the scale of individual atoms. While the individual copper atoms aren’t magnetically active, they influence the duration the iron atoms stay magnetically active when they’re placed next to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loth and his four other team members sent a current from the tip of the microscope to the iron atoms, which are like tiny bar magnets. The current causes the iron atom to become polarized, or to change its magnetic orientation, so instead of pointing north, it points south.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is the information, or data, that the scientists observed and measured on the order of nanoseconds, or billionths of a second. The difference between one nanosecond and one second is equal to the difference between one second and 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s similar to the way a computer reads the bits of data stored on a computer chip. But here, instead of the typical sequence of ones and zeroes to indicate information, the scientists looked at magnetic information -- the direction the iron atom pointed in and for how long it kept its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists experimented with the number and placement of iron atoms next to copper atoms to find the right configuration that would yield the longest time frame an iron atom would hold its magnetic position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The particular structure that we studied is this combination of one iron and one copper atom right next to it, snuggling it. With this configuration, the iron atom it holds the magnetic information for 200 nanoseconds”, said Loth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/3_STMCloseup1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Closeup view of the IBM scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the moment, the research team is exploring other configurations of iron and copper atoms to increase this length of time, which although extremely brief, is still long enough for meaningful activity to take place in today’s computers. For example, a laptop with a fast processor refreshes data constantly, every nanosecond. So in 200 nanoseconds, the computer has already performed a few hundred operations while its user is typing a document, surfing the web or checking email.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today’s hard drives, as compact as they are, still require about 10,000 atoms to store one bit of data. Each bit is a magnet pointing up or down, referring to a one or a zero, which a sensor on the hard drive reads when it retrieves data. Since the IBM researchers showed that magnetic information can be stored and read out on just one iron atom, the real estate needed to store data could shrink enormously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you could do atomic-scale data storage in a real device, you would have another 40 years in the development of Moore’s Law”, said Andreas Heinrich, a co-author of the paper and the research team leader.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moore’s Law, coined in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, states that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every 18 months, allowing for an exponential increase in computing power and storage. At a certain point, which is fast approaching, the physical limitation of engineering such small silicon transistors will prevent this exponential progress in computer chip technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating particles billionths of a meter in size, is widely seen as the answer to leapfrog over the limitations of traditional silicon chip manufacturing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We want to get away from transistors, to come up with new schemes on single atoms that allow you to do computation and data storage differently, more efficiently with less power”, said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A key challenge the IBM scientists had to overcome was to somehow visualize the individual atoms’ magnetic behavior in real time, on the order of a few nanoseconds. The computer attached to their microscope generated a map of the location of the atoms but it was missing the crucial time component.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We see these images of the atoms and they all look static,” said Loth. “The reason for that is that the scanning tunneling microscope is a slow technique. It takes minutes to get one of these images.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But thanks to inspiration from a Sci-Fi blockbuster, the researchers were able to actually capture movies that show the evolution of magnetically active individual iron atoms, a million times faster than was previously possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was a true feat of five people sticking their heads together for days on end. We were all in the lab talking about this and I was thinking of these cool bullet shots from \u003cem>The Matrix\u003c/em>, when the villain shoots at the good guy and you see the bullets stop in the air,” Loth said. “This is what we wanted to do. We wanted to freeze the motion so that we can inspect it and the way \u003cem>The Matrix \u003c/em>movie guys did it, they just took a bunch of still pictures. So we took a bunch of still pictures too.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think of it as time-lapse photography, shot at the nano-scale. But since neither the microscope nor its attached computer have lenses, the “pictures” they generated were individual points of action, recorded every few nanoseconds, while manipulating the iron atoms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The research team connected to their microscope a machine, a pulse pattern generator, to deliver extremely fast pulses of electricity from the metallic tip of the microscope to the iron atoms. After an iron atom was given a tiny electric current to initially polarize it and change its magnetic orientation from north to south, for example, a second, smaller current was then given to measure how strongly the atom held its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process was repeated over and over again, generating individual frames of action every 2 or 3 nanoseconds to capture in real time the magnetic behavior of the iron atom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have a defined delay between the initiating pulse and the reading pulse and this is what sets our time,” said Loth. “Instead of having to watch really closely and hope you catch this information in time, you predefine it by these pulses.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The frames were then sequentially played back as a movie, with the various data the computer was collecting to refer to the location of the atom and its magnetic orientation, for example, converted into a map showing the dynamic activity of the iron atom over time. The six movies the team has generated today are about a minute long but they show action that was recorded over the space of one millionth of a second.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/4_STM-time-resolution-3d-rendering.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>3D map illustration of iron atoms, with the strength of their magnetic polarization represented as yellow bars. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science is often close to an art. And one aspect of this is how you visualize your data in a way that looks most efficient and cool,” said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ability to capture atomic activity in real time represents a major milestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our effort to speed up nanoscience and put high-speed time into the nanoscience,” said Heinrich. “People were able to study nano-sized objects since the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, and people were able to study fast phenomena using lasers, but they weren’t able to combine these two worlds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This work is beautiful,” said Kathryn Moler, a professor of applied physics at Stanford University. “For information technology, it could mean a new generation of devices with better storage capabilities and lower power consumption,” she added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The IBM researchers said they are confident that their breakthrough will spur innovation in other fields as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heinrich said the microscope set-up could be “tuned to a different channel of information.” So instead of looking at the magnetic characteristics of an atom, scientists working on solar cells could track at the level of nanoseconds when a photon of light is converted into energy. Such work could yield better-designed solar cells that are more efficient at capturing light and converting it into electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a scientist, sometimes you make a development or discovery that is truly great and this was one of those moments when I knew this was a great development and something to be really proud of,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>Movie of iron atoms placed alongside copper atoms as they change their magnetic polarization over time. Red indicates high polarization and white indicates low polarization.(Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.210445 -121.810514\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Imagine a future where iPods are capable of storing hundreds of thousands or millions of songs, where smart phones could play back several hundred times more feature-length Hollywood films than is currently possible, and where solar powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\n\nIt’s a future that may be possible thanks to research being done by IBM scientists in San Jose who have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1285355849,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":44,"wordCount":1698},"headData":{"title":"Scientists Manipulate Atoms in Real Time | KQED","description":"Imagine a future where iPods are capable of storing hundreds of thousands or millions of songs, where smart phones could play back several hundred times more feature-length Hollywood films than is currently possible, and where solar powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\n\nIt’s a future that may be possible thanks to research being done by IBM scientists in San Jose who have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"8535 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2010/09/24/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/09/24/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time/","disqusTitle":"Scientists Manipulate Atoms in Real Time","path":"/quest/8535/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/1c_STMAnimation.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Illustration of a magnetically active iron atom under observation in the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine a future where iPods could store hundreds of thousands -- or even millions -- of songs, where smart phones could hold hundreds of Hollywood films, and where solar-powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a future that may be possible. IBM scientists in San Jose have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper describing the research was published Friday as the cover story in the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/\">Science\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To observe the behavior of individual copper and iron atoms billionths of a meter in size, the scientists had to use a “\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope\">scanning tunneling microscope\u003c/a>,” a device invented by IBM researchers in 1981.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It isn’t your typical microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/2_LothSTM.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>IBM Postdoctoral Researcher Sebastian Loth next to the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The cool thing about the scanning tunneling microscope is that you can not only see these atoms, you can move them around,” said Sebastian Loth, a postdoctoral researcher at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.almaden.ibm.com/\">IBM Almaden-Research Center\u003c/a>, and the lead author of the paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The device uses a metallic-pointed tip mounted on a robotic arm to move with atomic-scale precision next to iron and copper atoms. Iron was chosen because it’s magnetically active, even at the scale of individual atoms. While the individual copper atoms aren’t magnetically active, they influence the duration the iron atoms stay magnetically active when they’re placed next to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loth and his four other team members sent a current from the tip of the microscope to the iron atoms, which are like tiny bar magnets. The current causes the iron atom to become polarized, or to change its magnetic orientation, so instead of pointing north, it points south.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is the information, or data, that the scientists observed and measured on the order of nanoseconds, or billionths of a second. The difference between one nanosecond and one second is equal to the difference between one second and 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s similar to the way a computer reads the bits of data stored on a computer chip. But here, instead of the typical sequence of ones and zeroes to indicate information, the scientists looked at magnetic information -- the direction the iron atom pointed in and for how long it kept its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists experimented with the number and placement of iron atoms next to copper atoms to find the right configuration that would yield the longest time frame an iron atom would hold its magnetic position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The particular structure that we studied is this combination of one iron and one copper atom right next to it, snuggling it. With this configuration, the iron atom it holds the magnetic information for 200 nanoseconds”, said Loth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/3_STMCloseup1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Closeup view of the IBM scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the moment, the research team is exploring other configurations of iron and copper atoms to increase this length of time, which although extremely brief, is still long enough for meaningful activity to take place in today’s computers. For example, a laptop with a fast processor refreshes data constantly, every nanosecond. So in 200 nanoseconds, the computer has already performed a few hundred operations while its user is typing a document, surfing the web or checking email.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today’s hard drives, as compact as they are, still require about 10,000 atoms to store one bit of data. Each bit is a magnet pointing up or down, referring to a one or a zero, which a sensor on the hard drive reads when it retrieves data. Since the IBM researchers showed that magnetic information can be stored and read out on just one iron atom, the real estate needed to store data could shrink enormously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you could do atomic-scale data storage in a real device, you would have another 40 years in the development of Moore’s Law”, said Andreas Heinrich, a co-author of the paper and the research team leader.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moore’s Law, coined in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, states that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every 18 months, allowing for an exponential increase in computing power and storage. At a certain point, which is fast approaching, the physical limitation of engineering such small silicon transistors will prevent this exponential progress in computer chip technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating particles billionths of a meter in size, is widely seen as the answer to leapfrog over the limitations of traditional silicon chip manufacturing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We want to get away from transistors, to come up with new schemes on single atoms that allow you to do computation and data storage differently, more efficiently with less power”, said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A key challenge the IBM scientists had to overcome was to somehow visualize the individual atoms’ magnetic behavior in real time, on the order of a few nanoseconds. The computer attached to their microscope generated a map of the location of the atoms but it was missing the crucial time component.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We see these images of the atoms and they all look static,” said Loth. “The reason for that is that the scanning tunneling microscope is a slow technique. It takes minutes to get one of these images.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But thanks to inspiration from a Sci-Fi blockbuster, the researchers were able to actually capture movies that show the evolution of magnetically active individual iron atoms, a million times faster than was previously possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was a true feat of five people sticking their heads together for days on end. We were all in the lab talking about this and I was thinking of these cool bullet shots from \u003cem>The Matrix\u003c/em>, when the villain shoots at the good guy and you see the bullets stop in the air,” Loth said. “This is what we wanted to do. We wanted to freeze the motion so that we can inspect it and the way \u003cem>The Matrix \u003c/em>movie guys did it, they just took a bunch of still pictures. So we took a bunch of still pictures too.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think of it as time-lapse photography, shot at the nano-scale. But since neither the microscope nor its attached computer have lenses, the “pictures” they generated were individual points of action, recorded every few nanoseconds, while manipulating the iron atoms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The research team connected to their microscope a machine, a pulse pattern generator, to deliver extremely fast pulses of electricity from the metallic tip of the microscope to the iron atoms. After an iron atom was given a tiny electric current to initially polarize it and change its magnetic orientation from north to south, for example, a second, smaller current was then given to measure how strongly the atom held its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process was repeated over and over again, generating individual frames of action every 2 or 3 nanoseconds to capture in real time the magnetic behavior of the iron atom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have a defined delay between the initiating pulse and the reading pulse and this is what sets our time,” said Loth. “Instead of having to watch really closely and hope you catch this information in time, you predefine it by these pulses.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The frames were then sequentially played back as a movie, with the various data the computer was collecting to refer to the location of the atom and its magnetic orientation, for example, converted into a map showing the dynamic activity of the iron atom over time. The six movies the team has generated today are about a minute long but they show action that was recorded over the space of one millionth of a second.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/4_STM-time-resolution-3d-rendering.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>3D map illustration of iron atoms, with the strength of their magnetic polarization represented as yellow bars. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science is often close to an art. And one aspect of this is how you visualize your data in a way that looks most efficient and cool,” said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ability to capture atomic activity in real time represents a major milestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our effort to speed up nanoscience and put high-speed time into the nanoscience,” said Heinrich. “People were able to study nano-sized objects since the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, and people were able to study fast phenomena using lasers, but they weren’t able to combine these two worlds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This work is beautiful,” said Kathryn Moler, a professor of applied physics at Stanford University. “For information technology, it could mean a new generation of devices with better storage capabilities and lower power consumption,” she added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The IBM researchers said they are confident that their breakthrough will spur innovation in other fields as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heinrich said the microscope set-up could be “tuned to a different channel of information.” So instead of looking at the magnetic characteristics of an atom, scientists working on solar cells could track at the level of nanoseconds when a photon of light is converted into energy. Such work could yield better-designed solar cells that are more efficient at capturing light and converting it into electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a scientist, sometimes you make a development or discovery that is truly great and this was one of those moments when I knew this was a great development and something to be really proud of,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>Movie of iron atoms placed alongside copper atoms as they change their magnetic polarization over time. Red indicates high polarization and white indicates low polarization.(Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.210445 -121.810514\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/8535/scientists-manipulate-atoms-in-real-time","authors":["6176"],"categories":["quest_8","quest_16"],"tags":["quest_125","quest_161","quest_678","quest_1436","quest_1872","quest_1913","quest_13203","quest_2520","quest_2573"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. 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