Could Ants Teach the Biofuel Industry a Thing or Two?
Stardust and Sunbreath in the Sutter's Mill Meteorite
Metal Materials, Cold Could Have Contributed to the Titanic’s Demise
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Biodiesel can be used wherever conventional petroleum diesel is used.” Estill, who hasn’t been to a gas station since 2002, says any diesel engine can run on biodiesel without any modification. “You simply fill up and go.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61180\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/yellow_grease.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61180\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/yellow_grease-280x253.jpg\" alt=\"yellow_grease\" width=\"280\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Used vegetable oil is turned into 100% Biodiesel through a process called transesterification. Photo by David Huppert\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Green Chemistry\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nPiedmont’s biodiesel is made with a chemical process called \u003cstrong>transesterification\u003c/strong>. The process begins when feedstocks -- anything from soybeans to turkey fat to used vegetable oil -- are mixed with methanol in the presence of a catalyst, such as potassium hydroxide. The result is \u003ca href=\"http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/biodiesel_benefits.html\">clean-burning fuel\u003c/a> made from mostly locally sourced byproducts. No need to extract petroleum from Earth’s crust, no offshore oil tankers, and no refineries in the Gulf of Mexico.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The main feedstock in Piedmont’s blend comes in the form of used cooking oil from the deep fryers in local restaurants. This “yellow grease,” as it’s called, is in high demand and functions as a relatively clean, stable base for biodiesel. But it’s expensive, and Piedmont is constantly on the lookout for cheaper sustainable feedstocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>From Grease Traps to Greased Lightning\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Walk around Piedmont’s sprawling farm-meets-lab campus and pretty soon you realize that you’re surrounded by innovators. From seed-saving farmers to enzyme-incubating scientists, everyone is looking to make a big difference using low-impact techniques.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61800\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/RB_LE_earlybrew1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61800 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/RB_LE_earlybrew1-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"RB_LE_earlybrew\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Burton and Estill working on an early batch of home-brewed biodiesel in Estill's backyard. Photo courtesy Tami Schwerin\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One thing that has the whole place jumping is the new \u003ca href=\"http://www.biofuels.coop/enzymatic-biodiesel\">enzymatic reactor\u003c/a>. Burton, who helped design the one-of-a-kind reactor, says the new technology will enable biodiesel manufacturers to utilize a wider range of feedstocks, such as brown grease (think sludgy grease traps). Under the current workflow, brown grease is too contaminated to turn into biodiesel. Manufactures pay a premium for high-quality yellow grease, and the cost is reflected in their fuel’s price (Piedmont’s fuel usually sells around 10 cents above the petroleum average). The price point is why the enzymatic reactor has the potential to be a game changer. By using lower quality (and cheaper) grease, biodiesel manufacturers may soon see costs drop to the point where they can consistently compete with their petroleum counterparts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as Estill says, his hope is not necessarily to outsell big oil in small towns throughout North Carolina. The Piedmont Biofuels project is “demonstrative,” proving that communities can power themselves with a few local ingredients, and a lot of ingenuity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61187\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 496px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Lyle_grease_21.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-61187\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Lyle_grease_21-496x360.jpg\" alt=\"Lyle_grease_2\" width=\"496\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Estill, who's official title is VP of Stuff, collects used vegetable oil from Carolina Brewery in Pittsboro, NC. Photo by David Huppert\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\n\u003c/p>\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"From the deep fryer to the fuel tank, how one North Carolina company is using cooking grease to power a community.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1457564977,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":14,"wordCount":711},"headData":{"title":"Biodiesel Power | KQED","description":"From the deep fryer to the fuel tank, how one North Carolina company is using cooking grease to power a community.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Biodiesel Power","datePublished":"2013-10-17T14:00:27.000Z","dateModified":"2016-03-09T23:09:37.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"60342 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=60342","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/10/17/biodiesel-power/","disqusTitle":"Biodiesel Power","videoEmbed":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5bGCkakxW4","path":"/quest/60342/biodiesel-power","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Honk if you know the person who brewed your car's fuel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Anyone?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pose that question in Pittsboro, North Carolina, and you’re likely to hear a symphony of Volkswagens and Mercedes proudly tooting their local laborers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Pittsboro, “Drive Local” has become the new “Eat Local.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61806\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/willie_lyle_leif_rachel1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61806\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/willie_lyle_leif_rachel1-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"Piedmont Biofuels co-founders with Willie Nelson. Photo courtesy Tami Schwerin \" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Willie Nelson poses with Piedmont Biofuels co-founders while filling his tour bus with biodiesel. Photo courtesy Tami Schwerin\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It all started about a decade ago when Lyle Estill, Rachel Burton and Leif Forer began making biodiesel in Lyle’s backyard. Their goal was simple: make enough fuel so they no longer had to fill up at gas stations. Their DIY spirit -- coupled with a genuine desire to reduce their dependence on fossil fuels -- inspired the threesome to launch Piedmont Biofuels, a small-scale biodiesel manufacturing company.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Located in bucolic North Carolina, about 30 minutes outside of Raleigh, the company offered a novel product: clean, local, and sustainable fuel for Pittsboro’s diesel-powered vehicles. Ten years (and a few exploded reactors) later, Piedmont Biofuels manufactures a million gallons of B-100, or 100 percent biodiesel, annually for its more than 300 members.\u003cstrong>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Can It Work for You?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nRight now you may be wondering what biodiesel is and if you can use it in your new Jetta TDI. Forer explained, “Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel made from vegetable oil instead of crude petroleum oil. Biodiesel can be used wherever conventional petroleum diesel is used.” Estill, who hasn’t been to a gas station since 2002, says any diesel engine can run on biodiesel without any modification. “You simply fill up and go.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61180\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/yellow_grease.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61180\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/yellow_grease-280x253.jpg\" alt=\"yellow_grease\" width=\"280\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Used vegetable oil is turned into 100% Biodiesel through a process called transesterification. Photo by David Huppert\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Green Chemistry\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nPiedmont’s biodiesel is made with a chemical process called \u003cstrong>transesterification\u003c/strong>. The process begins when feedstocks -- anything from soybeans to turkey fat to used vegetable oil -- are mixed with methanol in the presence of a catalyst, such as potassium hydroxide. The result is \u003ca href=\"http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/biodiesel_benefits.html\">clean-burning fuel\u003c/a> made from mostly locally sourced byproducts. No need to extract petroleum from Earth’s crust, no offshore oil tankers, and no refineries in the Gulf of Mexico.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The main feedstock in Piedmont’s blend comes in the form of used cooking oil from the deep fryers in local restaurants. This “yellow grease,” as it’s called, is in high demand and functions as a relatively clean, stable base for biodiesel. But it’s expensive, and Piedmont is constantly on the lookout for cheaper sustainable feedstocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>From Grease Traps to Greased Lightning\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Walk around Piedmont’s sprawling farm-meets-lab campus and pretty soon you realize that you’re surrounded by innovators. From seed-saving farmers to enzyme-incubating scientists, everyone is looking to make a big difference using low-impact techniques.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61800\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/RB_LE_earlybrew1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61800 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/RB_LE_earlybrew1-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"RB_LE_earlybrew\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Burton and Estill working on an early batch of home-brewed biodiesel in Estill's backyard. Photo courtesy Tami Schwerin\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One thing that has the whole place jumping is the new \u003ca href=\"http://www.biofuels.coop/enzymatic-biodiesel\">enzymatic reactor\u003c/a>. Burton, who helped design the one-of-a-kind reactor, says the new technology will enable biodiesel manufacturers to utilize a wider range of feedstocks, such as brown grease (think sludgy grease traps). Under the current workflow, brown grease is too contaminated to turn into biodiesel. Manufactures pay a premium for high-quality yellow grease, and the cost is reflected in their fuel’s price (Piedmont’s fuel usually sells around 10 cents above the petroleum average). The price point is why the enzymatic reactor has the potential to be a game changer. By using lower quality (and cheaper) grease, biodiesel manufacturers may soon see costs drop to the point where they can consistently compete with their petroleum counterparts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as Estill says, his hope is not necessarily to outsell big oil in small towns throughout North Carolina. The Piedmont Biofuels project is “demonstrative,” proving that communities can power themselves with a few local ingredients, and a lot of ingenuity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61187\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 496px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Lyle_grease_21.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-61187\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Lyle_grease_21-496x360.jpg\" alt=\"Lyle_grease_2\" width=\"496\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Estill, who's official title is VP of Stuff, collects used vegetable oil from Carolina Brewery in Pittsboro, NC. Photo by David Huppert\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\n\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/60342/biodiesel-power","authors":["10296"],"categories":["quest_5","quest_8","quest_3229","quest_3422","quest_3233"],"tags":["quest_10995","quest_329","quest_482","quest_499","quest_637","quest_13198","quest_1023","quest_12269","quest_12308","quest_2057","quest_2141","quest_12307","quest_2349","quest_10427","quest_13364","quest_2893","quest_2983","quest_10363","quest_10303","quest_3071"],"featImg":"quest_61975","label":"quest"},"quest_58579":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_58579","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"58579","score":null,"sort":[1380204031000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"could-ants-teach-the-biofuel-industry-a-thing-or-two","title":"Could Ants Teach the Biofuel Industry a Thing or Two? ","publishDate":1380204031,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61026\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 632px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Atta3a.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-61026 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Atta3a.jpg\" alt=\"Leafcutter ants, native to Central and South America, can't digest the leaves they rely on for food, so they cultivate these gardens of fungi and bacteria to break down plant matter for them. \" width=\"632\" height=\"439\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Leafcutter ants, native to Central and South America, can't digest the leaves they rely on for food, so they cultivate these gardens of fungi and bacteria to break down plant matter for them. Photo courtesy of Alex Wild; used with permission.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the lobby of the Microbial Sciences building at the University of Wisconsin, leafcutter ants in a \u003ca href=\"http://currielab.wisc.edu/antcam/\">display colony\u003c/a> hike back and forth. Improbably large leaf fragments wobble on their backs as the ants ferry them between a dwindling pile of oak leaves and a garden of fungus studded with leaves in assorted states of decay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Made up of a single species of fungus and a handful of bacterial strains, the fungus garden breaks down the ants’ leafy harvest through an efficient natural process. It’s a process that researchers believe could be a model for producing biofuel in a more sustainable way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As we transition away from petroleum dependence, ethanol-based biofuel has risen to the forefront as one of the most accessible sources of renewable energy. It’s produced by fermenting plant sugars, which are strung together into long chains called polysaccharides. Before the fermentation process can begin, these chains have to be snipped apart, a process that varies in difficulty depending on the type of plant being used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Polysaccharide chains found in corn kernels -- the \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ethanol-domestic-fuel-supply-or-environmental-boondoggle\">primary biofuel crop\u003c/a> in the U.S. -- are relatively simple to break up. But corn depletes the soil and guzzles water and fertilizer, and using it for fuel siphons calories from the food supply to gas tanks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the other hand, perennial grasses and agricultural “waste” like cornstalks offer a biofuel source that has a lighter impact on the environment. But these woodier fibers -- referred to as \u003ca href=\"http://www.genomicscience.energy.gov/biofuels/placemat.shtml\">“cellulosic” biomass\u003c/a> -- are a tangle of robust polysaccharides that are trickier to deconstruct. Further complicating this problem, the molecular structure of plant biomass isn’t uniform. What breaks down the polysaccharides near the surface of a cornstalk or blade of grass might not work at all on those buried more deeply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61032\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0025.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61032 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0025-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"DSC_0025\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">University of Wisconsin researcher Frank Aylward peers into one of the lab's many leafcutter ant colonies.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But finding efficient ways to extract energy from plants and other forms of biomass is not a new problem. In fact, it’s a problem that Earth’s plant eaters solved millions of years ago. And according to University of Wisconsin researcher Frank Aylward, if you’re looking for a model system, you can’t do better than \u003ca href=\"http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/science_nation/leafcutterants.jsp\">leafcutter ants\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They may not have the imposing mien of herbivores like giraffes or elephants, but in Central and South America, leafcutter ants dominate, munching through more of the region’s foliage than any other organism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the ants can’t digest leaves by themselves -- they have to rely on the garden’s microbes. “We sort of think of the fungus gardens as being an external gut,” Aylward explains. The garden digests biomass and reconstitutes its molecules in little nutrient packets holding a cocktail of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The ants are essentially doing what we want to do with biofuel,” says Aylward. “They’re taking all of this recalcitrant plant biomass that’s full of all of these really complicated polymers and they’re degrading it and converting it into energy.” The transformation from leafy greens to energy source is mediated by hundreds of enzymes produced by the fungus garden’s microbes. If these enzymes chow down so efficiently on the leaves of Central America, Aylward and his coworkers wondered, could they be just as effective at breaking apart the sugars of cellulosic biomass in an industrial setting?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One model for a commercial biofuel process patterned after the fungus garden could entail splicing the genetic codes for the garden’s most effective enzymes into other microbes, prompting them to churn out biomass-digesting proteins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But first, scientists needed to identify which enzymes the garden uses to digest leaves for the ants and which microbial residents produce them. By sequencing the genomes of the fungus and bacteria and comparing that data to the garden’s enzyme soup, Aylward and his coworkers were able to identify a fungus called \u003cstrong>Leucoagaricus gongylophorus\u003c/strong> as the garden’s biomass-degrading workhorse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61035\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 332px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0056-e1380044705953.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61035 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0056-e1380044705953-332x253.jpg\" alt=\"Aylward extracts a fragment of the fungus garden. This segment was near the surface, and still shows visible leaf matter; the biomass in the garden sinks as it's broken down. \" width=\"332\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Aylward extracts a fragment of the fungus garden. This segment was near the surface, and still shows visible leaf matter; the biomass in the garden sinks as it's broken down.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>They also found that the fungus calibrates its enzyme cocktail for different stages of leaf decay. The biomass profile changes at each level in the garden -- the freshest leaves sit near the top and the mostly decomposed waste material at the bottom. And Aylward found that the garden’s enzymes changed, too. That insight could provide the biofuel industry with some clues about which enzymes might excel early in the polysaccharide-decomposition process and which ones to apply later on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Incidentally, this division of labor also reveals which enzymes the garden deploys together at each level. This is a huge boon to anyone designing industrial applications, since enzymes tend to work much better in specific combinations -- and the garden has had 50 million years of symbiosis with the ants to find the most efficient combinations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Aylward has already been approached by companies interested in synthesizing some of the garden’s enzymes and using them in biofuel production.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It's difficult to think that we can actually find a process that improves on nature,” Aylward points out, “so it probably makes sense to learn from it.”\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"How leaf-cutter ants and fungus gardens could provide the model for sustainably producing biofuels.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1380659536,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":17,"wordCount":954},"headData":{"title":"Could Ants Teach the Biofuel Industry a Thing or Two? | KQED","description":"How leaf-cutter ants and fungus gardens could provide the model for sustainably producing biofuels.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Could Ants Teach the Biofuel Industry a Thing or Two? ","datePublished":"2013-09-26T14:00:31.000Z","dateModified":"2013-10-01T20:32:16.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"58579 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=58579","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/09/26/could-ants-teach-the-biofuel-industry-a-thing-or-two/","disqusTitle":"Could Ants Teach the Biofuel Industry a Thing or Two? ","path":"/quest/58579/could-ants-teach-the-biofuel-industry-a-thing-or-two","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61026\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 632px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Atta3a.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-61026 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/Atta3a.jpg\" alt=\"Leafcutter ants, native to Central and South America, can't digest the leaves they rely on for food, so they cultivate these gardens of fungi and bacteria to break down plant matter for them. \" width=\"632\" height=\"439\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Leafcutter ants, native to Central and South America, can't digest the leaves they rely on for food, so they cultivate these gardens of fungi and bacteria to break down plant matter for them. Photo courtesy of Alex Wild; used with permission.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the lobby of the Microbial Sciences building at the University of Wisconsin, leafcutter ants in a \u003ca href=\"http://currielab.wisc.edu/antcam/\">display colony\u003c/a> hike back and forth. Improbably large leaf fragments wobble on their backs as the ants ferry them between a dwindling pile of oak leaves and a garden of fungus studded with leaves in assorted states of decay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Made up of a single species of fungus and a handful of bacterial strains, the fungus garden breaks down the ants’ leafy harvest through an efficient natural process. It’s a process that researchers believe could be a model for producing biofuel in a more sustainable way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As we transition away from petroleum dependence, ethanol-based biofuel has risen to the forefront as one of the most accessible sources of renewable energy. It’s produced by fermenting plant sugars, which are strung together into long chains called polysaccharides. Before the fermentation process can begin, these chains have to be snipped apart, a process that varies in difficulty depending on the type of plant being used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Polysaccharide chains found in corn kernels -- the \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ethanol-domestic-fuel-supply-or-environmental-boondoggle\">primary biofuel crop\u003c/a> in the U.S. -- are relatively simple to break up. But corn depletes the soil and guzzles water and fertilizer, and using it for fuel siphons calories from the food supply to gas tanks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the other hand, perennial grasses and agricultural “waste” like cornstalks offer a biofuel source that has a lighter impact on the environment. But these woodier fibers -- referred to as \u003ca href=\"http://www.genomicscience.energy.gov/biofuels/placemat.shtml\">“cellulosic” biomass\u003c/a> -- are a tangle of robust polysaccharides that are trickier to deconstruct. Further complicating this problem, the molecular structure of plant biomass isn’t uniform. What breaks down the polysaccharides near the surface of a cornstalk or blade of grass might not work at all on those buried more deeply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61032\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0025.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61032 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0025-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"DSC_0025\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">University of Wisconsin researcher Frank Aylward peers into one of the lab's many leafcutter ant colonies.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But finding efficient ways to extract energy from plants and other forms of biomass is not a new problem. In fact, it’s a problem that Earth’s plant eaters solved millions of years ago. And according to University of Wisconsin researcher Frank Aylward, if you’re looking for a model system, you can’t do better than \u003ca href=\"http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/science_nation/leafcutterants.jsp\">leafcutter ants\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They may not have the imposing mien of herbivores like giraffes or elephants, but in Central and South America, leafcutter ants dominate, munching through more of the region’s foliage than any other organism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the ants can’t digest leaves by themselves -- they have to rely on the garden’s microbes. “We sort of think of the fungus gardens as being an external gut,” Aylward explains. The garden digests biomass and reconstitutes its molecules in little nutrient packets holding a cocktail of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The ants are essentially doing what we want to do with biofuel,” says Aylward. “They’re taking all of this recalcitrant plant biomass that’s full of all of these really complicated polymers and they’re degrading it and converting it into energy.” The transformation from leafy greens to energy source is mediated by hundreds of enzymes produced by the fungus garden’s microbes. If these enzymes chow down so efficiently on the leaves of Central America, Aylward and his coworkers wondered, could they be just as effective at breaking apart the sugars of cellulosic biomass in an industrial setting?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One model for a commercial biofuel process patterned after the fungus garden could entail splicing the genetic codes for the garden’s most effective enzymes into other microbes, prompting them to churn out biomass-digesting proteins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But first, scientists needed to identify which enzymes the garden uses to digest leaves for the ants and which microbial residents produce them. By sequencing the genomes of the fungus and bacteria and comparing that data to the garden’s enzyme soup, Aylward and his coworkers were able to identify a fungus called \u003cstrong>Leucoagaricus gongylophorus\u003c/strong> as the garden’s biomass-degrading workhorse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_61035\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 332px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0056-e1380044705953.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-61035 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/07/DSC_0056-e1380044705953-332x253.jpg\" alt=\"Aylward extracts a fragment of the fungus garden. This segment was near the surface, and still shows visible leaf matter; the biomass in the garden sinks as it's broken down. \" width=\"332\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Aylward extracts a fragment of the fungus garden. This segment was near the surface, and still shows visible leaf matter; the biomass in the garden sinks as it's broken down.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>They also found that the fungus calibrates its enzyme cocktail for different stages of leaf decay. The biomass profile changes at each level in the garden -- the freshest leaves sit near the top and the mostly decomposed waste material at the bottom. And Aylward found that the garden’s enzymes changed, too. That insight could provide the biofuel industry with some clues about which enzymes might excel early in the polysaccharide-decomposition process and which ones to apply later on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Incidentally, this division of labor also reveals which enzymes the garden deploys together at each level. This is a huge boon to anyone designing industrial applications, since enzymes tend to work much better in specific combinations -- and the garden has had 50 million years of symbiosis with the ants to find the most efficient combinations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Aylward has already been approached by companies interested in synthesizing some of the garden’s enzymes and using them in biofuel production.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It's difficult to think that we can actually find a process that improves on nature,” Aylward points out, “so it probably makes sense to learn from it.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/58579/could-ants-teach-the-biofuel-industry-a-thing-or-two","authors":["10441"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_5","quest_11765","quest_9"],"tags":["quest_10995","quest_328","quest_12272","quest_12269","quest_12273","quest_3292","quest_12275"],"featImg":"quest_61026","label":"quest"},"quest_48060":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_48060","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"48060","score":null,"sort":[1356032492000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite","title":"Stardust and Sunbreath in the Sutter's Mill Meteorite","publishDate":1356032492,"format":"aside","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>On Sunday morning, April 22, 2012 a bright fireball streaked westward over the Reno-Tahoe area, rattling homes with a sonic boom. Shortly afterward, residents of El Dorado County heard the whistling sounds of falling meteorites. Weather radar tracked the hail of stones in midair, and the experts outlined a probable \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/\">strewnfield\u003c/a> centered on the site of Sutter's Mill, the place that launched the California Gold Rush in 1848. Soon a meteorite rush began as the story hit the news. Today, eight months later, the journal \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> has published intimate details about this leftover piece from the solar system's infancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorites are samples of the asteroids, which orbit the sun in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. Today, after more than 4 billion years of collisions with each other, they are mostly broken chunks of rock and iron. A handful of the largest asteroids still have \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/planets/a/aa_asteroidgeo.htm\">their original form of little planets\u003c/a>, with iron cores and rocky mantles like Earth or the Moon, although they're pretty banged up. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back in April it made me thrill to hear that the Sutter's Mill rocks were of the type called carbonaceous chondrite (\"CON-drite\"). This is older stuff that escaped processing in a mini-planet asteroid. It lets us peek beyond the birth of the planets to the original cloud of interstellar gas and stardust—the nebula—that first formed the sun and solar system. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to the \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper, the Sutter's Mill meteorite started out as a rock the size of a minivan, 2 to 4 meters across. It entered the atmosphere at 28.6 kilometers per second, twice as fast as most meteorites. The rock shattered from the shock at an altitude of 30 miles, producing an explosion of about 4 kilotons yield. Thousands of pieces quickly slowed down to ballistic speed, getting a thin blowtorched crust during the second or two they were supersonic. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48061\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-skin/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48061\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-skin\" width=\"600\" height=\"408\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48061\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin-400x272.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crinkly fusion crust (top) and interior of a Sutter's Mill meteorite fragment. Image courtesy Robert Beauford, University of Arkansas\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists from the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center, led by meteor specialist Peter Jenniskens, made an aerial survey of the strewnfield, looking for craters, and found none. For that they hired the airship Eureka in one of the Bay Area zeppelin's most unusual missions. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.airshipventures.com/\">Alas, the Eureka is no more.\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Carbonaceous chondrites look a lot like asphalt, and some are soft enough to cut with a knife. The Sutter's Mill stones are harder than that, though—more like old asphalt. So far, less than a kilogram of meteorite material has been collected. The biggest piece weighs 205 grams, or just over 7 ounces. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48062\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-top/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48062\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-top\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48062\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Specimen number SM2 of the Sutter's Mill meteorite fall was run over by a car before NASA scientist Peter Jenniskens found it on April 24, 2012. The largest grain is a centimeter across. Image: P. Jenniskens (SETI Institute) and Eric James (NASA Ames) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The tarry black color marks it as carbonaceous (it's about 2.5 percent carbon), and the little round grains inside are chondrules, tiny droplets made of the minerals olivine and pyroxene that condensed out of the hot nebula. Those are what define a chondrite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper describes the Sutter's Mill meteorites as typical of their class, the CM class. The chondrules have been partly erased by reactions with water. These reactions produced minerals that sound surprising to a geologist: clays, dolomite, calcite, serpentine. These tend to disappear when things get rough, geologically speaking, and are not the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">silicate minerals and iron metal\u003c/a> you find in most meteorites. The fact that these minerals are preserved means that the material made it through the entire history of the solar system without being heated beyond about 500°C.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The same is true of the carbon-bearing fraction; indeed, some bits of rock appear never to have gotten hotter than about 150°C, or the heat of a moderate oven. Other parts hold high-temperature grains. About 2 percent of the carbon appears to be in microscopic grains of diamond and silicon carbide: ancient stardust created in supernova explosions. Other parts of the carbon fraction hold a whisper of neon and argon from the sun, blown into it by the solar wind as the asteroid drifted in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The stone is made of broken fragments (a breccia) that was once the outer surface (regolith) of a small asteroid. Between the fragments is very fine grained material. The image below gives a sense of how complex this stuff is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48063\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 531px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermetsm47-iron/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48063\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermetSM47-iron-531x360.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermetSM47-iron\" width=\"531\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-48063\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">X-ray map of iron abundance in meteorite fragment SM47. From supplementary figure S13A of the Science paper. Click the image to see the 1000-pixel version.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Two specimens were collected before a rainstorm passed through. This pristine material proved unexpectedly rich in calcium sulfide (CaS), which disappeared after a single rainfall. Formate, acetate, sulfate and chloride likewise were quickly washed out. Another delicate fraction is the natural, non-biological amino acids that carbonaceous chondrites are famous for. In the Sutter's Mill stones the amino acids were less abundant than in other CM-class meteorites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These results don't tell a big new story or topple old theories; they're simply more data for the experts to chew on. But the paper is impressive for the state-of-the-art lab techniques used on these little stones. The text alone (not counting the 72-page supplement) cites results from X-ray tomography, helium pycnometry, magnetic susceptibility tests, backscattered electron mapping, neutron tomography, whole-rock chemistry, thermoluminescence, Raman spectrometry, powder diffractometry, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, ion chromatography, gas chromatography mass spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection and time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The paper has 71 authors from 44 different institutions who call themselves the \u003ca href=\"http://asima.seti.org/sm/\">Sutter's Mill Meteorite Consortium\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Working backward from the impact, the authors used radar frames, infrasound evidence, and photos taken by witnesses to estimate the size and orbit of the original rock. Its off-center orbit had carried it out near Jupiter at one end, where it must have originated as part of an asteroid, and close to Mercury at the other. There are some asteroids out there with light signatures close to that of the Sutter's Mill object. One of them is 1999 JU3, the target of the upcoming \u003ca href=\"http://b612.jspec.jaxa.jp/hayabusa2/e/index_e.html\">Hayabusa-2 asteroid sampling mission\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"The rare meteorite that fell in the Sierra foothills this spring yielded a rich harvest of scientific data.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1356732175,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":1075},"headData":{"title":"Stardust and Sunbreath in the Sutter's Mill Meteorite | KQED","description":"The rare meteorite that fell in the Sierra foothills this spring yielded a rich harvest of scientific data.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Stardust and Sunbreath in the Sutter's Mill Meteorite","datePublished":"2012-12-20T19:41:32.000Z","dateModified":"2012-12-28T22:02:55.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"48060 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=48060","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/","disqusTitle":"Stardust and Sunbreath in the Sutter's Mill Meteorite","path":"/quest/48060/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>On Sunday morning, April 22, 2012 a bright fireball streaked westward over the Reno-Tahoe area, rattling homes with a sonic boom. Shortly afterward, residents of El Dorado County heard the whistling sounds of falling meteorites. Weather radar tracked the hail of stones in midair, and the experts outlined a probable \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/\">strewnfield\u003c/a> centered on the site of Sutter's Mill, the place that launched the California Gold Rush in 1848. Soon a meteorite rush began as the story hit the news. Today, eight months later, the journal \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> has published intimate details about this leftover piece from the solar system's infancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorites are samples of the asteroids, which orbit the sun in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. Today, after more than 4 billion years of collisions with each other, they are mostly broken chunks of rock and iron. A handful of the largest asteroids still have \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/planets/a/aa_asteroidgeo.htm\">their original form of little planets\u003c/a>, with iron cores and rocky mantles like Earth or the Moon, although they're pretty banged up. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back in April it made me thrill to hear that the Sutter's Mill rocks were of the type called carbonaceous chondrite (\"CON-drite\"). This is older stuff that escaped processing in a mini-planet asteroid. It lets us peek beyond the birth of the planets to the original cloud of interstellar gas and stardust—the nebula—that first formed the sun and solar system. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to the \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper, the Sutter's Mill meteorite started out as a rock the size of a minivan, 2 to 4 meters across. It entered the atmosphere at 28.6 kilometers per second, twice as fast as most meteorites. The rock shattered from the shock at an altitude of 30 miles, producing an explosion of about 4 kilotons yield. Thousands of pieces quickly slowed down to ballistic speed, getting a thin blowtorched crust during the second or two they were supersonic. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48061\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-skin/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48061\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-skin\" width=\"600\" height=\"408\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48061\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin-400x272.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crinkly fusion crust (top) and interior of a Sutter's Mill meteorite fragment. Image courtesy Robert Beauford, University of Arkansas\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists from the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center, led by meteor specialist Peter Jenniskens, made an aerial survey of the strewnfield, looking for craters, and found none. For that they hired the airship Eureka in one of the Bay Area zeppelin's most unusual missions. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.airshipventures.com/\">Alas, the Eureka is no more.\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Carbonaceous chondrites look a lot like asphalt, and some are soft enough to cut with a knife. The Sutter's Mill stones are harder than that, though—more like old asphalt. So far, less than a kilogram of meteorite material has been collected. The biggest piece weighs 205 grams, or just over 7 ounces. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48062\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-top/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48062\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-top\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48062\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Specimen number SM2 of the Sutter's Mill meteorite fall was run over by a car before NASA scientist Peter Jenniskens found it on April 24, 2012. The largest grain is a centimeter across. Image: P. Jenniskens (SETI Institute) and Eric James (NASA Ames) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The tarry black color marks it as carbonaceous (it's about 2.5 percent carbon), and the little round grains inside are chondrules, tiny droplets made of the minerals olivine and pyroxene that condensed out of the hot nebula. Those are what define a chondrite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper describes the Sutter's Mill meteorites as typical of their class, the CM class. The chondrules have been partly erased by reactions with water. These reactions produced minerals that sound surprising to a geologist: clays, dolomite, calcite, serpentine. These tend to disappear when things get rough, geologically speaking, and are not the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">silicate minerals and iron metal\u003c/a> you find in most meteorites. The fact that these minerals are preserved means that the material made it through the entire history of the solar system without being heated beyond about 500°C.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The same is true of the carbon-bearing fraction; indeed, some bits of rock appear never to have gotten hotter than about 150°C, or the heat of a moderate oven. Other parts hold high-temperature grains. About 2 percent of the carbon appears to be in microscopic grains of diamond and silicon carbide: ancient stardust created in supernova explosions. Other parts of the carbon fraction hold a whisper of neon and argon from the sun, blown into it by the solar wind as the asteroid drifted in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The stone is made of broken fragments (a breccia) that was once the outer surface (regolith) of a small asteroid. Between the fragments is very fine grained material. The image below gives a sense of how complex this stuff is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48063\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 531px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermetsm47-iron/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48063\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermetSM47-iron-531x360.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermetSM47-iron\" width=\"531\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-48063\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">X-ray map of iron abundance in meteorite fragment SM47. From supplementary figure S13A of the Science paper. Click the image to see the 1000-pixel version.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Two specimens were collected before a rainstorm passed through. This pristine material proved unexpectedly rich in calcium sulfide (CaS), which disappeared after a single rainfall. Formate, acetate, sulfate and chloride likewise were quickly washed out. Another delicate fraction is the natural, non-biological amino acids that carbonaceous chondrites are famous for. In the Sutter's Mill stones the amino acids were less abundant than in other CM-class meteorites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These results don't tell a big new story or topple old theories; they're simply more data for the experts to chew on. But the paper is impressive for the state-of-the-art lab techniques used on these little stones. The text alone (not counting the 72-page supplement) cites results from X-ray tomography, helium pycnometry, magnetic susceptibility tests, backscattered electron mapping, neutron tomography, whole-rock chemistry, thermoluminescence, Raman spectrometry, powder diffractometry, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, ion chromatography, gas chromatography mass spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection and time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The paper has 71 authors from 44 different institutions who call themselves the \u003ca href=\"http://asima.seti.org/sm/\">Sutter's Mill Meteorite Consortium\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Working backward from the impact, the authors used radar frames, infrasound evidence, and photos taken by witnesses to estimate the size and orbit of the original rock. Its off-center orbit had carried it out near Jupiter at one end, where it must have originated as part of an asteroid, and close to Mercury at the other. There are some asteroids out there with light signatures close to that of the Sutter's Mill object. One of them is 1999 JU3, the target of the upcoming \u003ca href=\"http://b612.jspec.jaxa.jp/hayabusa2/e/index_e.html\">Hayabusa-2 asteroid sampling mission\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/48060/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite","authors":["6228"],"categories":["quest_11"],"tags":["quest_10995","quest_11656","quest_1800","quest_13202","quest_11655"],"featImg":"quest_48062","label":"quest"},"quest_35431":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_35431","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"35431","score":null,"sort":[1334761207000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"metal-materials-cold-could-have-contributed-to-the-titanic%e2%80%99s-demise","title":"Metal Materials, Cold Could Have Contributed to the Titanic’s Demise","publishDate":1334761207,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/18/metal-materials-cold-could-have-contributed-to-the-titanic%e2%80%99s-demise/titanic-resize/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-35434\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/titanic-resize.jpg\" alt=\"Titanic\" title=\"titanic resize\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-full wp-image-35434\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/titanic-resize.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/titanic-resize-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This past Sunday marked 100 years since the Titanic sank in the icy waters of the northern Atlantic Ocean. Yet after all this time, questions still remain about what really caused the ship to go down. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Often an \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/2012/04/14/the-science-behind-the-iceberg-that-sank-titanic/\">errant iceberg\u003c/a> gets all the blame. Others chalk up the disaster to human error. And a new book posits that odd weather conditions caused a \u003ca href=\"http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/mirages-tides-may-have-triggered-titanic-hitting-iceberg-but-are-new-theories-just-excuses/2012/04/11/gIQAhhwpAT_story.html\"> hazy mirage that hid the iceberg from sight\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In her most recent video, materials scientist \u003ca href=\"http://www.seas.yale.edu/faculty-detail.php?id=91\">Ainissa Ramirez\u003c/a>, at Yale University, looks at two theories of how metals used to build the ship could have contributed to the damage. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One theory is that the frigid water cooled the ship’s hull enough to change its mechanical properties from flexible to brittle. If so, the metal sheets would crack easily upon impact, instead of denting like a car that’s been in an accident. If the boat was in warmer waters when it hit the iceberg, perhaps the gash in the hull would have been smaller, Ramirez says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In her video, Ramirez demonstrates how temperature can change flexible materials, like rubber, into brittle materials that shatter like glass. Rubber is a tangle of strands called polymers. Normally, individual polymer strings slide past each other like noodles in a bowl of spaghetti, she says. These strands stiffen as the rubber cools, making the material brittle and easily broken. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pmqKALQofNs]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the end of the video, Ramirez mentions another theory for how materials contributed to the Titanic’s demise: the rivets that held the metal sheets together were inherently weak. The manufacturing process for these rivets introduced clusters of impurities into the iron. These clusters disrupt and weaken the neat network of atoms in a strong metal. Clumps can lead to cracks. And cracked rivets cause open joints.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Metal workers used to identify strong rivets by listening for a ting as they pounded the rivets into a joint. But workers building the Titanic could not hear this sound because they pounded in the rivets using noisy hydraulic hammers, Ramirez says. Perhaps if they built the boat by hand, workers could have heard that these rivets were not ideal, she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’re hooked on materials, learn about the tiles that keep the space shuttle cool as it enters our atmosphere, how materials can convert heat to electricity to power a cell phone and more from Dr. Ramirez’s videos at \u003ca href=\"http://www.materialmarvels.com/\">Material Marvels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"One hundred years after the sinking of the Titanic, questions still abound about what really caused the ship to go down. Two theories say the physical properties of the ship’s metal hull or the composition of the iron rivets could have worsened the damage when the ship slammed into the iceberg.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1335901298,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":true,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":12,"wordCount":416},"headData":{"title":"Metal Materials, Cold Could Have Contributed to the Titanic’s Demise | KQED","description":"One hundred years after the sinking of the Titanic, questions still abound about what really caused the ship to go down. Two theories say the physical properties of the ship’s metal hull or the composition of the iron rivets could have worsened the damage when the ship slammed into the iceberg.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Metal Materials, Cold Could Have Contributed to the Titanic’s Demise","datePublished":"2012-04-18T15:00:07.000Z","dateModified":"2012-05-01T19:41:38.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"35431 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=35431","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/18/metal-materials-cold-could-have-contributed-to-the-titanic%e2%80%99s-demise/","disqusTitle":"Metal Materials, Cold Could Have Contributed to the Titanic’s Demise","path":"/quest/35431/metal-materials-cold-could-have-contributed-to-the-titanic%e2%80%99s-demise","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/18/metal-materials-cold-could-have-contributed-to-the-titanic%e2%80%99s-demise/titanic-resize/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-35434\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/titanic-resize.jpg\" alt=\"Titanic\" title=\"titanic resize\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-full wp-image-35434\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/titanic-resize.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/titanic-resize-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This past Sunday marked 100 years since the Titanic sank in the icy waters of the northern Atlantic Ocean. Yet after all this time, questions still remain about what really caused the ship to go down. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Often an \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/2012/04/14/the-science-behind-the-iceberg-that-sank-titanic/\">errant iceberg\u003c/a> gets all the blame. Others chalk up the disaster to human error. And a new book posits that odd weather conditions caused a \u003ca href=\"http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/mirages-tides-may-have-triggered-titanic-hitting-iceberg-but-are-new-theories-just-excuses/2012/04/11/gIQAhhwpAT_story.html\"> hazy mirage that hid the iceberg from sight\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In her most recent video, materials scientist \u003ca href=\"http://www.seas.yale.edu/faculty-detail.php?id=91\">Ainissa Ramirez\u003c/a>, at Yale University, looks at two theories of how metals used to build the ship could have contributed to the damage. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One theory is that the frigid water cooled the ship’s hull enough to change its mechanical properties from flexible to brittle. If so, the metal sheets would crack easily upon impact, instead of denting like a car that’s been in an accident. If the boat was in warmer waters when it hit the iceberg, perhaps the gash in the hull would have been smaller, Ramirez says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In her video, Ramirez demonstrates how temperature can change flexible materials, like rubber, into brittle materials that shatter like glass. Rubber is a tangle of strands called polymers. Normally, individual polymer strings slide past each other like noodles in a bowl of spaghetti, she says. These strands stiffen as the rubber cools, making the material brittle and easily broken. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/pmqKALQofNs'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/pmqKALQofNs'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the end of the video, Ramirez mentions another theory for how materials contributed to the Titanic’s demise: the rivets that held the metal sheets together were inherently weak. The manufacturing process for these rivets introduced clusters of impurities into the iron. These clusters disrupt and weaken the neat network of atoms in a strong metal. Clumps can lead to cracks. And cracked rivets cause open joints.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Metal workers used to identify strong rivets by listening for a ting as they pounded the rivets into a joint. But workers building the Titanic could not hear this sound because they pounded in the rivets using noisy hydraulic hammers, Ramirez says. Perhaps if they built the boat by hand, workers could have heard that these rivets were not ideal, she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’re hooked on materials, learn about the tiles that keep the space shuttle cool as it enters our atmosphere, how materials can convert heat to electricity to power a cell phone and more from Dr. Ramirez’s videos at \u003ca href=\"http://www.materialmarvels.com/\">Material Marvels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/35431/metal-materials-cold-could-have-contributed-to-the-titanic%e2%80%99s-demise","authors":["10331"],"categories":["quest_5","quest_8"],"tags":["quest_10995","quest_3351","quest_1798","quest_2349","quest_13202","quest_10994"],"featImg":"quest_35434","label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. 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You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. 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